Name: polymer chains and their properties
Uploaded: 2023-04-30T18:28:47.000Z
Duration: 2 min 34 s
Channel: JoVE

K12 Standards

Florida Department of Education

High School

Life Science

SC.912.L.18

SC.912.L.18.1

Polymers

Polimer to łańcuch małych cząsteczek, zwanych monomerami, które są utrzymywane razem przez wiązania kowalencyjne. Organizmy mogą syntetyzować polimery biologiczne, a naukowcy mogą syntetyzować polimery w laboratorium.
Naturalne polimery obejmują DNA, materiał genetyczny znajdujący się we wszystkich żywych organizmach oraz białka, polisacharydy i lipidy, elementy budulcowe życia.
Tworzywa sztuczne są jednymi z najczęstszych polimerów syntetycznych i obejmują nylon, polietylen i teflon.
Proces łączenia się monomerów ze sobą w celu utworzenia większej cząsteczki jest znany jako polimeryzacja. Monomery polimeryzują w dwóch odrębnych mechanizmach reakcji, kondensacji i addycji.
Polimeryzacja kondensacyjna ma miejsce, gdy dwa monomery z reaktywnym atomem wodoru i grupą hydroksylową łączą się ze sobą, uwalniając wodę jako produkt uboczny. Większość naturalnych polimerów powstaje w wyniku reakcji kondensacji.
Oprócz polimeryzacji monomery z podwójnymi wiązaniami węgiel-węgiel są dodawane do siebie w celu utworzenia polimeru bez wytwarzania jakiegokolwiek produktu ubocznego poprzez uwalnianie atomów. 
Polimery, które składają się z tego samego rodzaju monomerów, są znane jako homopolimery, a te składające się z różnych typów monomerów są znane jako heteropolimery. Celuloza, najobficiej występujący polimer naturalny, jest homopolimerem glukozy, podczas gdy agaroza, polimer pochodzenia morskiego, jest heteropolimerem galaktozy i 3,6-anhydro-L-galaktopiranozy.
Polimery mają różną strukturę w zależności od rodzaju monomerów. Polimery liniowe to długie łańcuchy monomerów. Na przykład celuloza jest liniowym polimerem utrzymywanym razem przez wiązania beta 1,4-glikozydowe. 
Rozgałęzione polimery mają łańcuchy oddzielające się od łańcucha głównego, takie jak amylopektyna, składnik skrobi, który rozgałęzia się po 24 do 30 monomerach przez wiązania alfa 1,6-glikozydowe.
Usieciowane polimery mają dwa lub więcej łańcuchów utrzymywanych razem w kilku punktach, takich jak drabina, taka jak syntetycznie skonstruowany polimer drabinki krzemowej, lub tworzą złożoną sieć połączonych ze sobą łańcuchów - jak żel utworzony przez pektyny w galaretkach i dżemach.

polimery

Słowo polimer pochodzi od greckich słów „poly”, co oznacza „wiele” i „mer”, co oznacza „części”. Polimery to długie łańcuchy cząsteczek złożone z powtarzających się jednostek mniejszych cząsteczek, zwanych monomerami. Występują one naturalnie, np. w DNA i w białku, lub mogą być skonstruowane syntetycznie, jak tworzywa sztuczne. Mają różne cechy strukturalne, takie jak łańcuchy liniowe, łańcuchy rozgałęzione lub złożone sieci, które wpływają na wykazywane właściwości. Dodatkowo grupy funkcyjne, które mogą być obecne w polimerze, również definiują jego właściwości. Poszczególne jednostki polimeru są utrzymywane razem przez stabilne wiązania kowalencyjne, które powstają w wyniku polimeryzacji addycyjnej lub kondensacyjnej.

Polimeryzacja addycyjna

Dodatkowa polimeryzacja zachodzi, gdy monomery biorące udział w reakcji mają podwójne wiązania. Ta reakcja wymaga obecności zewnętrznej cząsteczki, która ma niesparowany elektron walencyjny, aby zainicjować reakcję. Ten niesparowany elektron jest wysoce reaktywny i tworzy wiązanie z jednym z wiązań podwójnych w monomerze, co prowadzi do tego, że monomer ma niesparowany elektron walencyjny. Ten niesparowany elektron walencyjny łączy się następnie z innym monomerem z wiązaniami podwójnymi, co prowadzi do reakcji łańcuchowej, w której cząsteczka dodaje do niej inne monomery z wiązaniami podwójnymi. Powoduje to utworzenie łańcucha monomerów, przy czym ostatnio dodany ma niesparowany elektron walencyjny. Ta reakcja addycji trwa do momentu, gdy dwa łańcuchy z niesparowanymi elektronami zareagują ze sobą, tworząc wiązanie. Eliminuje to wszelkie niesparowane elektrony walencyjne, co powoduje zakończenie reakcji.

Polimeryzacja kondensacyjna

Polimeryzacja kondensacyjna, znana również jako polimeryzacja stopniowa, wymaga katalizatora, takiego jak kwas lub enzym, a monomery muszą mieć co najmniej dwie reaktywne grupy funkcyjne, takie jak aminy lub kwasy karboksylowe. Grupy funkcyjne monomerów reagują ze sobą, tworząc wiązania, takie jak wiązania estrowe lub amidowe, czemu towarzyszy utrata małej cząsteczki, takiej jak woda. Polimeryzacja kondensacyjna jest reakcją wolniejszą w porównaniu z polimeryzacją addycyjną i w wielu przypadkach wymaga obecności ciepła.

Polimery

Słowo polimer pochodzi od greckich słów "poly", co oznacza "wiele" i "mer", co oznacza "części". ...

Education

JoVE Core

Cell Biology

Biologia komórki

Unit 1

Jednostka 1

Biochemistry of the Cell

Biochemia komórki

KEY TERMS AND CONCEPTS

Kluczowe terminy i pojęcia

polymer chains and their properties

Polymers are large molecules made from repeating units called monomers. These long chains can form many common materials. Their structure helps explain why different polymers can behave in different ways.

Polymers can be built in more than one way. Some form by addition polymerization, where monomers join together directly. Others form by condensation polymerization, which releases a small molecule as the chain grows.

The type of polymer affects its properties and uses. Some polymers are strong and flexible, while others are more rigid. Many everyday materials are made from polymers, so understanding how they form helps explain the materials people use every day.

Polymer Chains and Their Properties

the periodic table and organismal elements

the-periodic-table-and-organismal-elements

Elements in the Human Body and Periodic Table

Elements are the smallest units of matter that cannot be broken down further by chemical processes. Scientists know 118 elements, but not all of them occur naturally. Only a small number are essential for life, and living matter depends mostly on carbon, nitrogen, hydrogen, and oxygen. The periodic table organizes elements by their physical and chemical properties. Each square shows the element name, chemical symbol, atomic number, and atomic weight. The atomic number is the number of protons...

functional groups

Functional Groups in Organic Molecules

Functional groups are the part of an organic molecule that gives it specific chemical behavior. They help explain why compounds with similar carbon skeletons can react in different ways. In organic chemistry, these groups are often used to classify compounds. A functional group can change the properties of a molecule and affect how it behaves in a reaction. Knowing functional groups helps students recognize patterns in organic compounds. It also makes it easier to compare molecules that share...

types of chemical bonds

Chemical Bonds and How Atoms Join

Chemical bonds hold atoms together and help explain how different substances form. In chemistry, the main bond types are ionic bonds, covalent bonds, and metallic bonds. Ionic bonds form when electrons move from one atom to another. Covalent bonds form when atoms share electrons. Metallic bonds occur in metals, where electrons are held in a shared arrangement that gives metals their characteristic behavior. Understanding these bond types helps students compare how atoms connect in different...

noncovalent attractions in biomolecules

Biomolecule Interactions Without Covalent Bonds

Biomolecules often stay together through noncovalent attractions instead of covalent bonds. These weaker interactions help molecules recognize each other and form structures needed for life. The main noncovalent attractions are hydrogen bonds, electrostatic interactions, van der Waals forces, and hydrophobic interactions. Each one works in a different way, but all of them can influence how biomolecules fold, bind, and behave in cells. Hydrogen bonds form when a hydrogen atom is attracted to...

polymers

Polymers are large molecules made from repeating units called monomers. These long chains can form many common materials. Their structure helps explain why different polymers can behave in different ways. Polymers can be built in more than one way. Some form by addition polymerization, where monomers join together directly. Others form by condensation polymerization, which releases a small molecule as the chain grows. The type of polymer affects its properties and uses. Some polymers are...

what are lipids?

Lipids in Cells: Membranes, Energy, and Signals

Lipids are important cell molecules that act as membrane parts, energy stores, and signaling molecules. They are a diverse group of hydrocarbons, which are compounds made of carbon and hydrogen atoms. The carbon-carbon and carbon-hydrogen bonds are nonpolar, so lipids have an overall nonpolar character. Lipids are also hydrophobic, or “water-hating.” They do not form hydrogen bonds with water, so they are nearly insoluble in water. They are, however, soluble in organic solvents such as...

structure of lipids

How Lipid Molecules Are Built

Lipid molecules are built from hydrocarbon chains and a few key structural parts. Their shape helps explain why they behave differently from many other biological molecules. In high school biology, this structure is often linked to how lipids store energy and help form cell membranes. Some lipids are made from fatty acids joined to other small molecules. Triglycerides contain glycerol and three fatty acids, while phospholipids contain glycerol, two fatty acids, and a phosphate group. These...

chemistry of carbohydrates

Carbohydrate Structure and Bonding

Carbohydrates are built from sugar units and the bonds that link them. Their chemistry explains how simple sugars join to form larger molecules. It also helps show why carbohydrates have different structures and functions. The video focuses on the main sugar types found in carbohydrates. These include monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides. Monosaccharides are single sugar units. Disaccharides contain two sugar units, while polysaccharides are long chains of many sugar units. The...

nucleic acids

DNA and RNA in Cells

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ph regulation in cells

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Cell chemistry explains the substances that make cells work. Water is the main component of cells, and it supports the chemical reactions that keep life going. Cells also contain organic molecules, which are carbon-based compounds, and inorganic ions, which are charged particles needed for cell function. Organic molecules in cells include carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids. These molecules have different roles, but together they build cell structures, store energy, and carry...

key terms and concepts

Learn how polymers are built from repeating monomers and how addition and condensation polymerization shape the properties of everyday materials.

Polymer Chains and Their Properties | JoVE K12

cell biology

JoVE Core Cell Biology illustrates complex cellular processes in easy-to-understand yet comprehensive animated video lessons. This collection focuses on the essential components and functions of cells, including organelles and membranes, cellular transport, and cell energetics. It is complemented by scientist-in-action videos that demonstrate the application of cell biology in real-world research experiments.

Macromolecules

Biomolecules
Organisms contain a wide variety of organic molecules with numerous functions which depend on the chemical structures and properties of these ...

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Lipids function as structural components of cellular membranes, in addition to acting as energy reservoirs and signaling molecules. They are thus crucial ...

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Lipid-derived Compounds in the Human Body

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Peptide Bonds

A peptide bond covalently attaches amino acids through a dehydration reaction. One amino acid&#39;s carboxyl group and another amino acid&#39;s amino ...

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Protein Organization

Globular Proteins

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Fibrous Proteins

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Describe the basic molecular structures and primary functions of the four major categories of biological macromolecules.

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Describe the important structural characteristics of monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides and explain the functions of carbohydrates in living things.

SC.912.L.18.2

Overview of Fatty Acid Metabolism

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What are Membranes?

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Fluid Mosaic Model

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Asymmetric Lipid Bilayer

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Lipids as Anchors

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The Significance of Membrane Transport

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Describe the structures of fatty acids, triglycerides, phospholipids, and steroids. Explain the functions of lipids in living organisms. Identify some reactions that fatty acids undergo. Relate the structure and function of cell membranes.

SC.912.L.18.3

Ligand Binding Sites

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Catalytically Perfect Enzymes

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Introduction to Mechanisms of Enzyme Catalysis

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Ligand Binding and Linkage

Cooperative Allosteric Transitions

Ribozymes

Enzyme Activity

Biological Catalysts

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Describe the structures of proteins and amino acids. Explain the functions of proteins in living organisms. Identify some reactions that amino acids undergo. Relate the structure and function of enzymes.

SC.912.L.18.4

Chemiosmosis

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Electron Transport Chain: Complex I and II

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Electron Transport Chain: Complex III and IV

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The Electron Transport Chain

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The Supercomplexes in the Crista Membrane

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ATP Synthase: Structure

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ATP Synthase: Mechanism

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The ADP/ATP Carrier Protein

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ATP Yield

Cellular respiration produces 30 - 32 ATP per glucose molecule. Although most of the ATP results from oxidative phosphorylation and the electron transport ...

Discuss the use of chemiosmotic gradients for ATP production in chloroplasts and mitochondria.

SC.912.L.18.5

Fermentation

Most eukaryotic organisms require oxygen to survive and function adequately. Such organisms produce large amounts of energy during aerobic respiration by ...

biofuels-producing-ethanol-from-cellulosic-material

Biofuels: Producing Ethanol from Cellulosic Material

Source: Laboratories of Margaret Workman and Kimberly Frye - Depaul University
In this experiment, cellulosic material (such as corn stalks, leaves, ...

Discuss the role of anaerobic respiration in living things and in human society.

SC.912.L.18.6

Photosynthesis

Autotrophs

Almost all living organisms on Earth depend on photosynthesis, which is the process that converts sunlight energy into a simple sugar called ...

What is Photosynthesis?

All living organisms on Earth are directly or indirectly dependent on photosynthesis. It is the only biological process that can capture energy from ...

The Anatomy of Chloroplasts

Green algae and plants, including green stems and unripe fruit, harbor specialized organelles called chloroplasts to carry out photosynthesis. They ...

Photosystems

Photosystems are multiprotein complexes that form the functional units of photosynthesis in plants, algae, and cyanobacteria. They are found embedded in ...

The Photochemical Reaction Center

Reaction centers are pigment-protein complexes that initiate energy conversion from photons to chemical entities. Therefore, photochemical reaction center ...

The Antenna Complex

Plants and other photosynthetic organisms comprise pigments capable of absorption of direct sunlight. These pigments are present in the reaction center - ...

the-z-scheme-of-electron-transport-in-photosynthesis

The Z-Scheme of Electron Transport in Photosynthesis

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The Calvin Benson Cycle

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Identify the reactants, products, and basic functions of photosynthesis.

SC.912.L.18.7

A. All living things are composed of four basic categories of macromolecules and share the same basic needs for life.

B. Living organisms acquire the energy they need for life processes through various metabolic pathways (primarily photosynthesis and cellular respiration).

C. Chemical reactions in living things follow basic rules of chemistry and are usually regulated by enzymes.

D. The unique chemical properties of carbon and water make life on Earth possible.

Polymer Chains and Their Properties

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