Name: carbohydrate structure and bonding
Uploaded: 2023-04-30T18:28:47.000Z
Duration: 3 min 25 s
Channel: JoVE

K12 Standards

Florida Department of Education

High School

Life Science

SC.912.L.18

SC.912.L.18.1

Chemistry of Carbohydrates

Węglowodany to związki złożone z węgla, wodoru i tlenu. Cząsteczki te biorą swoją nazwę od empirycznego wzoru wielu cukrów prostych, które mają dwa atomy wodoru i jeden atom tlenu na każdy węgiel.
Węglowodany proste to monomery zwane cukrem prostym i dimery zwane disacharydami. Węglowodany złożone to polimery zwane polisacharydami.
Monosacharyd można sklasyfikować jako aldozę lub ketozę ze względu na jego grupę funkcyjną. Te, które mają grupę aldehydową, nazywane są aldozami, a te mające grupę ketonową nazywane są ketozami.
Monosacharydy zwykle zawierają w swoich łańcuchach od trzech do siedmiu atomów węgla. Każdy z atomów węgla można ponumerować, zaczynając od numeru jeden od końca znajdującego się najbliżej węgla karbonylowego.
Cukry mogą tworzyć niepłaskie struktury pierścieniowe i w naturze występują głównie w tej cyklicznej formie. Struktury pierścieniowe powstają, gdy grupa karbonylowa reaguje z grupą hydroksylową na przeciwległym końcu cząsteczki w reakcji kondensacji. Węgiel przyłączony do reaktywnego aldehydu lub ketonu jest również znany jako węgiel anomeryczny.
Te struktury pierścieni węgiel-tlen mogą istnieć jako dwie anomery: alfa i beta. Anomery to izomery strukturalne, które różnią się konfiguracją na węglu karbonylowym. W postaci alfa grupa hydroksylowa na anomerycznym węglu i grupa CH2OH na ostatnim węglu w pierścieniu znajdują się po przeciwnych stronach pierścienia, aw postaci beta znajdują się po tej samej stronie.
Podobna konwencja nazewnictwa jest stosowana w przypadku wiązań łączących monosacharydy z innymi cząsteczkami. 
Wiązania utworzone poniżej struktury pierścienia są znane jako wiązania alfa, podczas gdy te powyżej pierścienia są znane jako wiązania beta. Liczby w nazwie wiązań glikozydowych wskazują liczbę atomów węgla z cukrów prostych, które są zaangażowane w wiązania.
Kiedy dwa monosacharydy łączą się ze sobą wiązaniami glikozydowymi, tworzą disacharydy.
Wiązania glikozydowe to wiązania kowalencyjne, które powstają, gdy grupa hydroksylowa jednego monosacharydu reaguje z anomerycznym węglem innego monosacharydu z eliminacją cząsteczki wody.
Polisacharydy lub węglowodany złożone to łańcuch cukrów prostych połączonych wiązaniami kowalencyjnymi. Różnice w wiązaniach glikozydowych obecnych w tych cząsteczkach mogą powodować różne rodzaje polisacharydów z tego samego monosacharydu.
Cząsteczki glukozy połączone wiązaniami β-1,4-glikozydowymi tworzą celulozę, nierozpuszczalny w wodzie polisacharyd. Cząsteczki glukozy połączone wiązaniami α-1,4-glikozydowymi tworzą amylozę, rozpuszczalny w wodzie polimer i składnik skrobi. Skrobia i celuloza to polisacharydy występujące w roślinach.
Glikogen to nierozpuszczalna w wodzie cząsteczka zbudowana z glukozy połączona wiązaniami α-1,4-glikozydowymi i przerywanymi rozgałęzieniami w ścisłych wiązaniach α-1,6-glikozydowych. Glikogen służy jako polisacharyd magazynujący u zwierząt.

chemia węglowodanów

Węglowodany stanowią istotny składnik diety ludzi i zwierząt. Zboża, owoce i warzywa to naturalne źródła węglowodanów, które dostarczają organizmowi energii, szczególnie poprzez glukozę – cukier prosty, który jest składnikiem skrobi i składnikiem wielu podstawowych produktów spożywczych. Wzór stechiometryczny (CH2O)n, gdzie n jest liczbą atomów węgla w cząsteczce, reprezentuje węglowodany. Innymi słowy, stosunek węgla do wodoru i tlenu w cząsteczkach węglowodanów wynosi 1:2:1. Wzór ten wyjaśnia również pochodzenie terminu „węglowodany”: składnikami są węgiel („węglowodór”) i woda („hydrat”). Węglowodany można podzielić na proste i złożone. Monosacharydy i disacharydy są węglowodanami prostymi. Polisacharydy są węglowodanami złożonymi.

Monosacharydy

Monosacharydy to cukry proste, z których najpowszechniejszym jest glukoza. W monosacharydach liczba atomów węgla zwykle waha się od trzech do siedmiu. Jeśli cukier ma grupę aldehydową (grupa funkcyjna o strukturze R-CHO), jest to aldoza, a jeśli ma grupę ketonową (grupa funkcyjna o strukturze RC(=O)R'), jest to ketoza. W zależności od liczby atomów węgla w cukrze mogą to być triozy (trzy atomy węgla), pentozy (pięć atomów węgla) i/lub heksozy (sześć atomów węgla).

Galaktoza i fruktoza to inne popularne monosacharydy. Glukoza, galaktoza i fruktoza to izomeryczne monosacharydy (heksozy), co oznacza, że mają ten sam wzór chemiczny, ale nieco inną strukturę. Glukoza i galaktoza to aldozy, a fruktoza to ketoza.

Monosacharydy mogą występować w postaci łańcucha liniowego lub cząsteczek w kształcie pierścienia. W roztworach wodnych mają one zwykle postać pierścieniową. Glukoza w postaci pierścienia może mieć dwa różne układy grup hydroksylowych (OH) wokół anomerycznego węgla (węgiel 1, który staje się asymetryczny w procesie tworzenia pierścienia). Jeśli grupa hydroksylowa znajduje się w cukrze poniżej atomu węgla nr 1, znajduje się ona w pozycji alfa (α), a jeśli znajduje się powyżej płaszczyzny, znajduje się w pozycji beta (β).

Disacharydy

Disacharydy powstają, gdy dwa monosacharydy ulegają reakcji odwodnienia (lub reakcji kondensacji lub syntezy odwodnienia). Podczas tego procesu grupa hydroksylowa jednego monosacharydu łączy się z wodorem innego monosacharydu, uwalniając cząsteczkę wody i tworząc wiązanie kowalencyjne. Nazywa się to wiązaniem glikozydowym. Wiązania glikozydowe (lub wiązania glikozydowe) mogą być typu alfa lub beta. Wiązanie alfa powstaje, gdy grupa OH na węglu-1 pierwszej glukozy znajduje się poniżej płaszczyzny pierścienia, a wiązanie beta tworzy się, gdy grupa OH na węglu-1 znajduje się powyżej płaszczyzny pierścienia. Najpopularniejszym disacharydem jest sacharoza, czyli cukier stołowy, który składa się z monomerów glukozy i fruktozy.

Polisacharydy

Długi łańcuch monosacharydów połączonych wiązaniami glikozydowymi to polisacharyd. Łańcuch może być rozgałęziony lub nierozgałęziony i może zawierać różne rodzaje monosacharydów. Masa cząsteczkowa może wynosić 100 000 daltonów lub więcej, w zależności od liczby połączonych monomerów. Skrobia, glikogen, celuloza i chityna są przykładami polisacharydów.

Rośliny magazynują skrobię w postaci cukrów. W roślinach cukry te zawierają mieszaninę amylozy i amylopektyny (oba polimery glukozy). Skrobia zawiera monomery glukozy połączone wiązaniami glikozydowymi α1-4 lub α1-6. Liczby 1-4 i 1-6 odnoszą się do liczby atomów węgla w dwóch resztach, które połączyły się, tworząc wiązanie.

Glikogen jest formą magazynowania glukozy u ludzi i innych kręgowców i składa się z monomerów glukozy. Glikogen jest zwierzęcym odpowiednikiem skrobi i jest silnie rozgałęzioną cząsteczką, zwykle magazynowaną w komórkach wątroby i mięśni. Kiedy poziom glukozy we krwi spada, glikogen rozkłada się, uwalniając glukozę.

Celuloza jest najobficiej występującym naturalnym biopolimerem. Celuloza składa się głównie ze ściany komórkowej rośliny. Zapewnia to wsparcie strukturalne komórki. Drewno i papier mają głównie charakter celulozowy. Monomery glukozy obejmują celulozę, która łączy wiązania β1-4glikozydowe

Chemia węglowodanów

Węglowodany są istotną częścią diety ludzi i zwierząt. Zboża, owoce i warzywa są naturalnymi źródłami węglowodanów, które zapewniają ...

Education

JoVE Core

Cell Biology

Biologia komórki

Unit 1

Jednostka 1

Biochemistry of the Cell

Biochemia komórki

KEY TERMS AND CONCEPTS

Kluczowe terminy i pojęcia

carbohydrate structure and bonding

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chemistry of carbohydrates

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SC.912.L.18.2

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SC.912.L.18.3

Ligand Binding Sites

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SC.912.L.18.4

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the-supercomplexes-in-the-crista-membrane

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Discuss the use of chemiosmotic gradients for ATP production in chloroplasts and mitochondria.

SC.912.L.18.5

Fermentation

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Biofuels: Producing Ethanol from Cellulosic Material

Source: Laboratories of Margaret Workman and Kimberly Frye - Depaul University
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SC.912.L.18.6

Photosynthesis

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SC.912.L.18.7

A. All living things are composed of four basic categories of macromolecules and share the same basic needs for life.

B. Living organisms acquire the energy they need for life processes through various metabolic pathways (primarily photosynthesis and cellular respiration).

C. Chemical reactions in living things follow basic rules of chemistry and are usually regulated by enzymes.

D. The unique chemical properties of carbon and water make life on Earth possible.

Carbohydrate Structure and Bonding

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