Name: dna and rna in cells
Uploaded: 2023-04-30T18:28:47.000Z
Duration: 2 min 43 s
Channel: JoVE

K12 Standards

Next Generation Science Standards

High School

Life Science

from-molecules-to-organisms-structures-and-processes

From Molecules to Organisms: Structures and Processes

HS-LS1-1

Nucleic Acids

Kwasy nukleinowe to polimery nukleotydów – cząsteczek składających się z cukru pentozowego, zasady zawierającej azot i grupy fosforanowej.
Istnieją dwa rodzaje kwasów nukleinowych: kwas dezoksyrybonukleinowy DNA i kwas rybonukleinowy RNA. 
Ich struktura chemiczna różni się w zależności od zawartych w nich pentozowych zasad cukrowych i azotowych.
Cukier pentozowy w RNA to ryboza, która ma grupę hydroksylową przyłączoną do węgla-2. Cukier w DNA to dezoksyryboza, która ma tylko atom wodoru, ale nie ma tlenu przy węglu-2.
Baza azotowa jest związana z węglem-1, a fosforan z węglem-5. Zarówno RNA, jak i DNA zawierają zasady adeniny, cytozyny i guaniny; ale DNA ma tyminę, podczas gdy RNA ma uracyl. 
W DNA i RNA guanina i cytozyna tworzą komplementarne pary zasad, połączone trzema wiązaniami wodorowymi. Adenina i tymina tworzą pary zasad w DNA, podczas gdy adenina i uracyl łączą się w pary w RNA, oba połączone ze sobą dwoma wiązaniami wodorowymi.
Różne enzymy polimerazy DNA lub RNA katalizują polimeryzację nukleotydów.
Wiązanie fosfodiestrowe powstaje między grupą hydroksylową przyłączoną do węgla-3 a grupą fosforanową przyłączoną do węgla-5 następnego nukleotydu. Ta reakcja pozostawia nieprzyłączony koniec 5' z wolną grupą fosforanową i nieprzyłączony koniec 3' z wolną grupą hydroksylową.
W połączeniu z komplementarną nicią dwie cząsteczki są antyrównoległe, co oznacza, że koniec 5' jednej nici łączy się z końcem 3' drugiej.
Pasma są utrzymywane razem przez siły międzycząsteczkowe, w tym efekty hydrofobowe, oddziaływania van der Waalsa i specyficzne wiązania wodorowe, które tworzą się między zasadami azotowymi. DNA to podwójna helisa złożona z dwóch łańcuchów polinukleotydowych nawiniętych wokół siebie. W przeciwieństwie do tego, RNA jest często znajdowane jako cząsteczka jednoniciowa.
Jednak RNA może wiązać się z komplementarnym RNA lub DNA. Może również wykazywać wewnątrzniciowe komplementarne parowanie zasad, co skutkuje różnymi typami drugorzędowych struktur RNA, które pełnią różne funkcje w komórce.

kwasy nukleinowe

Kwasy nukleinowe są makrocząsteczkami najważniejszymi dla ciągłości życia. Niosą plan genetyczny komórki i instrukcje jej funkcjonowania.

DNA i RNA

Dwa główne typy kwasów nukleinowych to kwas dezoksyrybonukleinowy (DNA) i kwas rybonukleinowy (RNA). DNA jest materiałem genetycznym wszystkich żywych organizmów, od jednokomórkowych bakterii po wielokomórkowe ssaki. Znajduje się w jądrze eukariontów oraz w organellach, chloroplastach i mitochondriach. U prokariotów DNA nie jest zamknięte w błoniastej otoczce.

Cała zawartość genetyczna komórki to jej genom, a badanie genomów to genomika. W komórkach eukariotycznych, ale nie u prokariotów, DNA tworzy kompleks z białkami histonowymi, tworząc chromatynę, substancję chromosomów eukariotycznych. Chromosom może zawierać dziesiątki tysięcy genów. Wiele genów zawiera informację niezbędną do wytworzenia białek. Inne geny kodują produkty RNA. DNA kontroluje całą aktywność komórkową, włączając i wyłączając geny.

Drugi rodzaj kwasu nukleinowego, RNA, bierze głównie udział w syntezie białek. Cząsteczki DNA nigdy nie opuszczają jądra, zamiast tego wykorzystują pośrednika do komunikacji z resztą komórki. Tym pośrednikiem jest informacyjny RNA (mRNA). Inne typy RNA — takie jak rRNA, tRNA i mikroRNA — biorą udział w syntezie białek i jej regulacji.

DNA i RNA składają się z monomerów zwanych nukleotydami. Każdy nukleotyd składa się z trzech składników: zasady azotowej, cukru pentozowego (pięciowęglowego) i grupy fosforanowej. Każda zasada azotowa w nukleotydzie jest przyłączona do cząsteczki cukru, która jest przyłączona do jednej lub więcej grup fosforanowych. Zasady azotowe, ważne składniki nukleotydów, są cząsteczkami organicznymi i zostały tak nazwane, ponieważ zawierają węgiel i azot. Są zasadami, ponieważ zawierają grupę aminową, która ma potencjał wiązania dodatkowego wodoru, a tym samym zmniejszania stężenia jonów wodorowych w swoim otoczeniu, czyniąc go bardziej zasadowym. Każdy nukleotyd w DNA zawiera jedną z czterech możliwych zasad azotowych: adeninę (A), guaninę (G), cytozynę (C) i tyminę (T). Adenina i guanina zaliczane są do puryn. Podstawową strukturą puryn są dwa pierścienie węgiel-azot. Cytozyna, tymina i uracyl są klasyfikowane jako pirymidyny, których podstawową strukturą jest pojedynczy pierścień węgiel-azot. Do każdego z tych podstawowych pierścieni węgiel-azot przyłączone są różne grupy funkcyjne. W skrócie biologii molekularnej zasady azotowe znamy po ich symbolach A, T, G, C i U. DNA zawiera A, T, G i C; podczas gdy RNA zawiera A, U, G i C.

Cukier pentozowy w DNA to deoksyryboza, a w RNA cukier to ryboza. Różnica między cukrami polega na obecności grupy hydroksylowej na drugim węglu rybozy i wodoru na drugim węglu dezoksyrybozy. Reszta fosforanowa przyłącza się do grupy hydroksylowej węgla 5′ jednego cukru i grupy hydroksylowej węgla 3′ cukru następnego nukleotydu, tworząc wiązanie fosfodiestrowe 5′–3′.

Struktura podwójnej helisy DNA

DNA ma strukturę podwójnej helisy. Cukier i fosforany znajdują się na zewnątrz helisy, tworząc szkielet DNA. Zasady azotowe ułożone są we wnętrzu niczym para stopni schodów. Wiązania wodorowe łączą pary ze sobą. Każda para zasad w podwójnej helisie jest oddalona od następnej pary zasad o 0,34 nm. Dwie nici helisy biegną w przeciwnych kierunkach, co oznacza, że koniec węglowy 5′ jednej nici będzie skierowany w stronę końca węglowego 3′ pasującej nici. Dozwolone są tylko niektóre typy par zasad – A może łączyć się z T, a G może łączyć się z C. Jest to podstawowa zasada komplementarności. Innymi słowy, nici DNA są względem siebie komplementarne.

RNA

Kwas rybonukleinowy, czyli RNA, bierze udział głównie w procesie syntezy białek pod kierunkiem DNA. RNA jest zwykle jednoniciowy i składa się z rybonukleotydów połączonych wiązaniami fosfodiestrowymi.

Istnieją cztery główne typy RNA: informacyjny RNA (mRNA), rybosomalny RNA (rRNA), transferowy RNA (tRNA) i mikroRNA (miRNA). Pierwszy, mRNA, przenosi wiadomość z DNA, które kontroluje całą aktywność komórkową w komórce. Jeśli komórka potrzebuje określonego białka, odpowiadający za nią gen zostaje „włączony” i w jądrze następuje synteza informacyjnego RNA. Sekwencja zasad RNA jest komplementarna do sekwencji kodującej DNA, z której została skopiowana. W cytoplazmie mRNA oddziałuje z rybosomami i innymi mechanizmami komórkowymi.

mRNA odczytuje się w zestawach trzech zasad zwanych kodonami. Każdy kodon koduje pojedynczy aminokwas. W ten sposób odczytywany jest mRNA i powstaje produkt białkowy. Rybosomalny RNA (rRNA) jest głównym składnikiem rybosomów, z którymi wiąże się mRNA. rRNA zapewnia prawidłowe ułożenie mRNA i rybosomów. rRNA rybosomu ma również aktywność enzymatyczną (transferaza peptydylowa) i katalizuje tworzenie wiązań peptydowych pomiędzy dwoma ustawionymi aminokwasami. Transferowy RNA (tRNA) to jeden z najmniejszych z czterech typów RNA, zwykle o długości 70–90 nukleotydów. Przenosi właściwy aminokwas do miejsca syntezy białka. Jest to para zasad pomiędzy tRNA i mRNA, która pozwala właściwemu aminokwasowi wstawić się do łańcucha polipeptydowego. MikroRNA to najmniejsze cząsteczki RNA, a ich rola polega na regulowaniu ekspresji genów poprzez zakłócanie ekspresji niektórych komunikatów mRNA.

Mimo że RNA jest jednoniciowy, większość typów RNA wykazuje rozległe wewnątrzcząsteczkowe pary zasad pomiędzy komplementarnymi sekwencjami, tworząc przewidywalną trójwymiarową strukturę niezbędną dla ich funkcji.

Ten tekst jest adaptacją <a href="https://openstax.org/books/biology-2e/pages/3-5-nucleic-acids">Openstax, Biology 2e, Chapter 3.5: Nucleic Acids</a>

Kwasy nukleinowe

Kwasy nukleinowe są najważniejszymi makrocząsteczkami dla ciągłości życia. Przenoszą one plan genetyczny komórki i zawierają instrukcje dotyczące jej ...

Education

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Cell Biology

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Unit 1

Jednostka 1

Biochemistry of the Cell

Biochemia komórki

KEY TERMS AND CONCEPTS

Kluczowe terminy i pojęcia

dna and rna in cells

DNA and RNA are nucleic acids that help store and use genetic information in cells. They are key molecules in biology and are often studied together because they work as a pair in living systems.

Nucleic acids are built from repeating units called nucleotides. Each nucleotide has a sugar, a phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base. The order of these bases carries the genetic code.

There are two main nucleic acids: DNA, or deoxyribonucleic acid, and RNA, or ribonucleic acid. DNA usually stores genetic information, while RNA helps carry and use that information in the cell. Their roles make them essential for heredity and cell function.

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Develop and use a model to illustrate the hierarchical organization of interacting systems that provide specific functions within multicellular organisms. [Clarification Statement: Emphasis is on functions at the organism system level such as nutrient uptake, water delivery, and organism movement in response to neural stimuli. An example of an interacting system could be an artery depending on the proper function of elastic tissue and smooth muscle to regulate and deliver the proper amount of blood within the circulatory system.] [Assessment Boundary: Assessment does not include interactions and functions at the molecular or chemical reaction level.]

HS-LS1-2

DNA and RNA in Cells

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