Name: elbow injury checks and stability tests
Uploaded: 2023-04-30T06:46:04.000Z
Duration: 10 min 9 s
Channel: JoVE

K12 Standards

new-york-state-science-learning-standards

New York State Science Learning Standards

High School

Life Science

Structure and Function

HS-LS1-3.

Elbow Exam

1. Досмотр
<ol>
	<li>При осмотре локтя сравните с незадействованной стороной, обращая внимание на отек, покраснение, тепло и угол переноски. </li>
	<li>Если отек присутствует, определите, находится ли он в бурсе или в суставе. Отек в локтевом суставе появится спереди в плечевой ямке. Наиболее распространенным местом отека в локтевом суставе является задний, в локтевой сумке. </li>
	<li>Обратите внимание, присутствует ли покраснение или тепло; Это может указывать на бурсит или инфекцию локтевого нерва. </li>
	<li>Сравните размер локтей, ища атрофию. Помните, что у метателя часто наблюдается адаптивная гипертрофия доминирующего локтя. </li>
	<li>Обратите внимание на угол переноски, который образуют верхняя и нижняя рука в анатомическом положении. В норме она составляет 5-10° у самцов и 10-15° у самок. Этот угол может быть изменен в результате предшествующего перелома надмыщелка или инфекции. </li>
</ol>
2. Пальпация
Пальпация чрезвычайно полезна для точного определения источника боли в локте. Как правило, полезно локализовать боль в локтевом суставе спереди, сзади, медиально или латерально. 
Пальпируйте следующие важные структуры в каждой из этих областей:
<ol>
	<li>Передний локоть
	<ol>
		<li>Сухожилие бицепса: Пальпируйте для выявления тугого канатика в медиальной части переднего локтя (лучше всего прощупывать, когда локоть согнут под углом 90°). </li>
		<li>Плечевая артерия: Нащупайте пульсацию прямо медиально к сухожилию бицепса. </li>
		<li>Пальпируйте на предмет болезненности над срединным нервом, расположенным медиально к плечевой артерии. </li>
		<li>Пальпируйте на предмет болезненности над капсулой переднего сустава. </li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Задний локоть
	<ol>
		<li>Трицепс: Пальпируйте вдоль задней части плеча до кончика локтевого отростка. </li>
		<li>Локтевой отросток: Пальпируйте выступающую шишку на заднем локте. </li>
		<li>Локтевой отросток: Почувствуйте впадину, как раз превосходящую отросток локтевого нерва. </li>
		<li>Локтевой сумка: пальпируется сзади к проксимальному отделу локтевой кости; Это можно почувствовать только в том случае, если оно воспалено и отечно. </li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Медиальный локоть
	<ol>
		<li>Медиальный надмыщелок: Пальпируйте костный выступ в области медиального локтя. </li>
		<li>Мышцы-сгибатели запястья и пронаторные мышцы: нащупайте сухожилия в медиальном надмыщелке. </li>
		<li>Медиальная коллатеральная связка (MCL): пальпируется от медиального надмыщелка к локтрону. MCL залегает глубоко к мышцам-сгибателям-пронаторам. </li>
		<li>Локтевой нерв: Пальпируйте от медиального надмыщелка к локтевой кости чуть выше MCL локтевого сустава. Постукивание по нерву может вызывать неприятные ощущения при воспалении (симптом Тинеля). </li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Боковой локоть
	<ol>
		<li>Латеральный надмыщелок: Прощупайте костный выступ на боковом локте. </li>
		<li>Мышцы-разгибатели и супинаторы: Пальпируйте сухожилия, прикрепленные к латеральному надмыщелку. </li>
		<li>Лучевая головка: Пальпируется в боковом локте, лучше всего ощущается во время супинации и пронации запястья. </li>
		<li>Радиально-капителлярный шарнир: пальпируется проксимальнее головки лучевой кости. </li>
		<li>Пальпируйте четыре пальца на ширине дистальнее латерального надмыщелка для чувствительности: боль в этой области связана со сдавлением заднего межкостного нерва. </li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>
3. Диапазон движений (ROM)
ПЗУ в локте следует оценивать путем сравнения между двумя сторонами. Отсутствие движения указывает на скованность (из-за травмы или артрита) или механическую блокировку внутри сустава (из-за рыхлого тела). Обычное ПЗУ отображается в скобках. Проверьте наличие следующих движений:
<ol>
	<li>Разгибание (0°): Попросите пациента вытянуть локоть так, чтобы рука была прямой. Имейте в виду, что у метателя часто можно увидеть легкую сгибательную контрактуру. </li>
	<li>Сгибание (150°): Попросите пациента согнуть локоть, пытаясь коснуться рукой плеча. </li>
	<li>Пронация (70°): Согнув локоть пациента под углом 90° и направив большой палец вверх, попросите пациента повернуть руку так, чтобы ладонь была обращена вниз к полу. </li>
	<li>Супинация (90°): Согнув локоть пациента под углом 90° и направив большой палец вверх, попросите пациента повернуть руку так, чтобы ладонь была обращена вверх (как будто вы пытаетесь удержать суп в ладони). </li>
</ol>
4. Испытание на прочность
Испытание на прочность проводится путем проверки движений с сопротивлением, описанных выше. Боль при этих сопротивлениях движениям обычно возникает из-за тендинита или эпикондилита. Силу следует оценивать в следующих движениях:
<ol>
	<li>Супинация предплечья (см. выше): Сопротивление усугубит латеральный эпикондилит (сухожилия супинатора прикрепляются к латеральному надмыщелку). </li>
	<li>Пронация предплечья (см. выше): Сопротивление усугубит медиальный эпикондилит (сухожилия пронатора прикрепляются к медиальному надмыщелку). </li>
	<li>Разгибание запястья: Выпрямив запястье пациента и направив ладонь вниз, переместите руку пациента вверх. Сопротивление усугубит боль при латеральном эпикондилите (разгибатели запястья прикрепляются к латеральному надмыщелку). </li>
	<li>Сгибание запястья: Выпрямив запястье пациента и направив ладонь вниз, переместите руку пациента вниз. Сопротивление усилит боль при медиальном эпикондилите (сгибатели запястья прикрепляются к медиальному надмыщелку). </li>
	<li>Сопротивление разгибанию длинных пальцев: С прямым запястьем пациента и ладонью вниз переместите средний палец пациента вверх. Резистентность усугубит боль при латеральном эпикондилите. </li>
	<li>Сгибание локтя (см. выше): Сопротивление проверяет силу бицепса, а боль указывает на тендинит. </li>
	<li>Разгибание локтя (см. выше): Сопротивление проверяет силу трицепса, а боль указывает на тендинит. </li>
</ol>
5. Тесты на растяжение
Эти тесты усугубят боль, вызванную медиальным или латеральным эпикондилитом, при растяжении надмыщелка. 
<ol>
	<li>Растяните запястье до сгибания или пронации (описано выше); Это тянет латеральный надмыщелок и усиливает боль при латеральном эпикондилите. </li>
	<li>Растяните запястье до разгибания или супинации (описано выше); Это тянет медиальный надмыщелок и усиливает боль при медиальном эпикондилите. </li>
</ol>
6. Тестирование коллатеральной связки
Коллатеральные связки локтевого сустава должны быть оценены на предмет боли и/или дряблости. Медиальная коллатеральная связка повреждается гораздо чаще, чем латеральная. 
Для оценки этих связок используются два теста:
<ol>
	<li>Варусный/вальгусный стресс
	<ol>
		<li>Пассивно поверните плечо пациента наружу (полное внешнее вращение) и согните локоть на 30°, чтобы разблокировать локтевой отросток из локтевой ямки. </li>
		<li>Положите одну ладонь на боковой локоть пациента и надавите другой рукой медиально (вальгусное напряжение применяется для оценки медиальной коллатеральной связки). </li>
		<li>Проведите варусный стресс-тест для оценки латеральной коллатеральной связки, положив ладонь на медиальный локоть пациента и надавливая в боковом направлении. </li>
		<li>Проверьте наличие боли и/или дряблости. </li>
		<li>Оцените степень тяжести повреждения связок. 
		Степень I (растянутая связка): боль без дряблости. 
		Степень II (частичный разрыв): боль с минимальной слабостью. Мягкая конечная точка. 
		Степень III (полный разрыв): боль без хорошей конечной точки. </li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Маневр доения: Согните пораженный локоть под углом 90° и полностью супинируйте с вытянутым большим пальцем. Протяните противоположную руку под задействованный локоть и возьмитесь за большой палец. Боковое вытягивание большого пальца создает вальгусное напряжение в медиальной коллатеральной связке пораженного локтя. </li>
</ol>

Осмотр локтевого сустава лучше всего проводить, следуя ступенчатому подходу, когда пациент находится в сидячем положении. Важно, чтобы пациент снял достаточно одежды, чтобы можно было увидеть анатомию поверхности и сравнить ее с невовлеченной стороной. Осмотр должен начинаться с осмотра, поиска асимметрии между вовлеченным и незадействованным локтем. Далее проводится пальпация ключевых структур на предмет болезненности, отека или деформации.
Далее следует оценка ПЗУ, сначала активно, а затем п...

Экзамен на локоть

Источник: <a href="https://www.jove.com/author/Robert+E._Sallis">Роберт Э. Саллис</a>, доктор медицины. Kaiser Permanente, Фонтана, Калифорния, США
Локоть представляет собой шарнирный сустав, который включает в себя сочленение 3 костей: плечевой кости, лучевой и локтевой костей. Это гораздо более стабильный сустав, чем плечевый, и из-за этого локоть имеет меньший диапазон движений. Локоть и его структуры подвержены значительным травмам, особенно при повторяющихся движениях. Латеральный и медиальный эпикондилит (также называемый локтем теннисиста и локтем гольфиста) являются двумя распространенными диагнозами и часто возникают в результате профессиональной деятельности. 
При осмотре локтя важно снять достаточно одежды, чтобы можно было осмотреть все плечо и локоть. Важно сравнить травмированный локоть с незадействованной стороной. Систематическая оценка локтевого сустава включает осмотр, пальпацию, тестирование диапазона движений (ROM) и специальные тесты, включая маневры для оценки стабильности связок и тесты на растяжение для усиления боли, вызванной эпикондилитом.

Source: Robert E. Sallis, MD. Kaiser Permanente, Fontana, California, USA
The elbow is a hinged joint that involves the articulation of 3 bones: the ...

Education

JoVE Science Education

Clinical Skills

Клинические навыки

Physical Examinations III

Физикальный осмотр III

elbow injury checks and stability tests

The elbow is a hinge joint made by the humerus, radius, and ulna. It is more stable than the shoulder, so it has less range of motion. The elbow and nearby structures can still be injured, especially with repetitive motion.

Lateral epicondylitis and medial epicondylitis are two common elbow problems. Lateral epicondylitis is also called tennis elbow, and medial epicondylitis is also called golfer's elbow. These conditions often develop from occupational activities.

A full elbow exam starts with enough clothing removed to inspect the shoulder and elbow. The injured elbow should be compared with the uninjured side. The exam then includes inspection, palpation, range of motion testing, and special tests.

Special tests can check ligament stability and stretch the area to bring out pain from epicondylitis. This systematic approach helps evaluate elbow injury and pain in a clear, organized way.

Elbow Injury Checks and Stability Tests

cranial nerves exam i (i-vi)

Cranial Nerve Exam: Eye and Face Checks

Cranial nerve testing uses careful observation to check how the eyes, face, and related muscles are working. Some problems are easy to spot. A patient may report loss of smell or double vision, and facial nerve palsy can also be seen on exam. Other issues, such as sixth nerve palsy, may be subtle and need a careful neurological exam to find them. Cranial nerve problems can also appear when a person has changes in mental status. Some neurodegenerative disorders and brain lesions can affect...

cranial nerves exam ii (vii-xii)

Testing Cranial Nerves VII-XII

Cranial nerves VII-XII are tested as part of the neurological exam after the mental status evaluation. The examination begins with simple observations made during the first greeting. Facial weakness may already be visible, since the facial muscles are controlled by cranial nerve VII. Cranial nerve VII is the facial nerve. It also carries taste from the anterior two-thirds of the tongue and part of the external auditory canal. If facial weakness is paired with taste loss on the same side, that...

motor exam i

Motor Function Assessment Basics

Motor function assessment begins with careful observation. Abnormal motor findings can appear in many diseases, including movement disorders, myopathies, and strokes. The clinician first watches how the patient walks into the exam area. They also note walking without help, speed, and coordination while moving. Patient history gives another chance to look for signs such as tremors. It can also reveal other abnormal movements, including chorea and tardive dyskinesia. These early observations may...

motor exam ii

Neurological Reflexes, Coordination, and Gait

Neurological motor exams often include testing reflexes, coordination, and gait. These parts of the exam help localize neurologic problems and show how the nervous system is working. Reflex testing includes deep tendon reflexes and superficial reflexes. A deep tendon reflex, or DTR, begins when a stretch-sensitive receptor in a neuromuscular spindle is stimulated. That signal travels through a single synapse to a motor nerve and produces a muscle contraction. DTRs are often increased in...

sensory exam

Sensory Pathways and Nerve Mapping

A sensory exam checks pain, temperature, light touch, vibration, and joint position sense. It helps localize nerve and brain problems by showing which sensory pathways are affected. Sensation from the face is covered in Cranial Nerves Exam I and II, along with smell, vision, taste, and hearing. Pain and temperature signals travel in the spinothalamic tract. These fibers cross 1 to 2 spinal nerve segments above where they enter, then move through the brainstem to the thalamus. From there, the...

neck exam

Cervical Spine and Neck Injury

The neck contains the cervical spine, a group of seven vertebrae arranged in a gentle C-shaped curve. These bones, joints, and ligaments make the neck complex to examine. The cervical spine supports the head and helps protect the nerves that come from the brain and spinal cord. Each vertebra has a thick bony body at the front. Intervertebral discs connect the bodies above and below, and they add stability and shock absorption. The back part of each vertebra includes the laminae, transverse and...

shoulder exam i

Shoulder Exam: Joint Structure and Motion

Shoulder exam starts with understanding the joints and muscles that control shoulder movement. The shoulder is made up of four separate joints: the glenohumeral (GH) joint, the acromioclavicular (AC) joint, the sternoclavicular joint, and the scapulothoracic joint. The GH joint is the main joint for shoulder motion. It is also the most mobile joint in the body. Because it is shaped like a golf ball sitting on a tee, it can be prone to instability. The GH joint is held in place by the four...

shoulder exam ii

Shoulder Strength and Instability Tests

The shoulder exam continues with strength testing of the rotator cuff muscles and the biceps tendons. These tests help assess common sources of shoulder pain and guide the next steps in the exam. The rotator cuff includes the supraspinatus, infraspinatus, teres minor, and subscapularis muscles. These muscles act as compressors that hold the humeral head in place against the glenoid. Injury and wear of the rotator cuff tendons are among the most common causes of shoulder pain. Strength is...

elbow exam

The elbow is a hinge joint made by the humerus, radius, and ulna. It is more stable than the shoulder, so it has less range of motion. The elbow and nearby structures can still be injured, especially with repetitive motion. Lateral epicondylitis and medial epicondylitis are two common elbow problems. Lateral epicondylitis is also called tennis elbow, and medial epicondylitis is also called golfer's elbow. These conditions often develop from occupational activities. A full elbow exam starts...

wrist and hand examination

Wrist and Hand Injury Exam

The wrist and hand injury exam checks bones, joints, tendons, nerves, and blood flow. The wrist is a complex joint made of 8 carpal bones and many ligaments. The hand has 5 metacarpal bones, and the fingers have 14 phalanges. Tendons and muscles lie over these bones and help move the hand and fingers. Wrist and hand problems can follow impact, weight-bearing activities such as gymnastics, or twisting and throwing motions. The exam starts with inspection. The examiner then looks for tenderness...

lower back exam

Lower Back Pain Evaluation

The lower back exam checks for pain, injury, and changes in the spine and nearby tissues. Back pain is a common source of pain in the body. Because the lower back includes bones, discs, ligaments, nerves, and muscles, each of these structures can contribute to symptoms. The exam starts with inspection and palpation. Inspection means looking for signs of deformity or inflammation. Palpation means feeling the area with the hands to check for tenderness or swelling. The exam also includes range...

hip exam

Assessing Hip Pain and Movement

The hip is a ball-and-socket joint made by the femoral head fitting into the acetabulum. The hip ligaments help make it a very strong and stable joint. Even so, the hip still has a wide range of motion and can wear down over time or after injury. Hip pain can affect people of many ages. It may be linked to problems inside the joint or outside the joint. The location of pain in the hip region can give early clues about the cause. A hip exam looks for asymmetry, swelling, and changes in gait,...

knee exam

Knee Injury Assessment

Knee injury assessment focuses on the largest joint in the body, where the femur meets the tibia. Because the knee sits in the middle of the lower leg, it faces traumatic and degenerative forces. Its structure also makes the exam more detailed. The joint is inherently unstable and relies on ligaments and menisci for support. The menisci act as shock absorbers and help increase the contact area of the joint. The patella sits in front of the knee and acts as a fulcrum for forceful extension.

ankle exam

How to Assess an Injured Ankle

The ankle exam helps assess an injured ankle by checking the joint, the ligaments, and the surrounding foot. The ankle and foot form the base for body support and upright movement. Because this area bears weight, ankle injuries are common in athletes and in the general population. Ankle injuries can happen after sudden trauma or from repeated overuse, such as running. The ankle is a fairly simple joint. It includes the distal tibia, the talus, and the fibula on the lateral side. Its main...

foot exam

Assessing Foot Pain and Injury

Foot pain and injury can be evaluated by checking the foot carefully from side to side. The foot is a complex structure made of many bones and joints. It gives the body flexibility, serves as the main point of contact for walking, and helps absorb shock. Because the foot supports the weight of the whole body, it is often prone to pain and injury. A full exam starts by removing shoes and socks on both feet. This lets the examiner inspect the entire foot and compare the painful or injured side...

physical examinations iii

This collection covers physical examination of two major systems in our body: neurological and musculoskeletal, with videos explaining relevant anatomy, the rationale behind the steps, and the interpretation of the exam findings.

Explore how the elbow is examined, from comparing both sides to testing motion, ligament stability, and pain from tennis elbow or golfer's elbow.

Elbow Injury Checks and Stability Tests | JoVE K12

Robert E. Sallis

Kaiser Permanente

Overview

Inspection and Palpation

Range of Motion Testing

Strength Testing

Special Tests

Summary

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Cytoplasm

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The Nucleus

The nucleus is a membrane-bound organelle that acts as a control center in a eukaryotic cell. It contains chromosomal DNA, which controls gene expression ...

The Central Dogma

The DNA Helix

Nucleic Acids

DNA as a Genetic Template

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Chromosome Structure

Base-pairing and DNA Repair

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Protein and Protein Structures

Proteins: From Genes to Degradation

From DNA to Protein

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An Overview of Gene Expression

Gene expression is the complex process where a cell uses its genetic information to make functional products. This process is regulated at multiple ...

an-introduction-to-caenorhabditis-elegans

An Introduction to Caenorhabditis elegans

Caenorhabditis elegans is a microscopic, soil-dwelling roundworm that has been powerfully used as a model organism since the early 1970&rsquo;s.  It was ...

An Overview of Genetic Analysis

An organism&#8217;s physical traits, or phenotype, are a product of its genotype, which is the combination of alleles (gene variants) inherited from its ...

An Introduction to Cell Death

Necrosis, apoptosis, and autophagic cell death are all manners in which cells can die, and these mechanisms can be induced by different stimuli, such as ...

An Overview of Genetic Engineering

Genetic engineering &#8211; the process of purposefully altering an organism&#8217;s DNA &#8211; has been used to create powerful research tools and model ...

An Introduction to Cell Division

Cell division is the process by which a parent cell divides and gives rise to two or more daughter cells. It is a means of reproduction for single-cell ...

An Overview of Genetics and Disease

Many human diseases are associated with mutations or variations in genetic sequences. Some of these genetic variants are heritable, passed down from ...

an-introduction-to-cellular-and-molecular-neuroscience

An Introduction to Cellular and Molecular Neuroscience

Cellular and molecular neuroscience is one of the newest and fastest growing subdisciplines in neuroscience. By investigating the influences of genes, ...

Annexin V and Propidium Iodide Labeling

Staining with annexin V and propidium iodide (PI) provides researchers with a way to identify different types of cell death&#8212;either necrosis or ...

an-introduction-to-developmental-genetics

An Introduction to Developmental Genetics

Development is the complex process through which a single-celled embryo transforms into a multicellular organism. Developmental processes are guided by ...

Bacterial Transformation: Electroporation

The term &#x201C;transformation&#x201D; refers cellular ingestion of foreign DNA.  In nature, transformation can occur in certain types of bacteria.  In ...

an-introduction-to-molecular-developmental-biology

An Introduction to Molecular Developmental Biology

Molecular signals play a major role in the complex processes occurring during embryonic development. These signals regulate activities such as cell ...

bacterial-transformation-the-heat-shock-method

Bacterial Transformation: The Heat Shock Method

Transformation is the process that occurs when a cell ingests foreign DNA from its surroundings. Transformation can occur in nature in certain types of ...

an-introduction-to-saccharomyces-cerevisiae

An Introduction to Saccharomyces cerevisiae

Saccharomyces cerevisiae (commonly known as baker&rsquo;s yeast) is a single-celled eukaryote that is frequently used in scientific research.  S. ...

Cell Cycle Analysis

Cell cycle refers to the set of events through which a cell grows, replicates its genome, and ultimately divides into two daughter cells through the ...

An Introduction to Transfection

Transfection is the process of inserting genetic material, such as DNA and double stranded RNA, into mammalian cells. The insertion of DNA into a cell ...

Chromatin Immunoprecipitation

Histones are proteins that help organize DNA in eukaryotic nuclei by serving as &#8220;scaffolds&#8221; around which DNA can be wrapped, forming a complex ...

An Overview of Epigenetics

Since the early days of genetics research, scientists have noted certain heritable phenotypic differences that are not due to differences in the ...

community-dna-extraction-from-bacterial-colonies

Community DNA Extraction from Bacterial Colonies

Source: Laboratories of Dr. Ian Pepper and Dr. Charles Gerba - The University of Arizona
Demonstrating Author: Luisa Ikner
Traditional methods of analysis ...

Cytogenetics

Cytogenetics is the field of study devoted to chromosomes, and involves the direct observation of a cell&#8217;s chromosomal number and structure, ...

embryonic-stem-cell-culture-and-differentiation

Embryonic Stem Cell Culture and Differentiation

Culturing embryonic stem (ES) cells requires conditions that maintain these cells in an undifferentiated state to preserve their capacity for self-renewal ...

DNA Gel Electrophoresis

DNA gel electrophoresis is a technique used for the detection and separation of DNA molecules. An electric field is applied to a gel matrix comprised of ...

Enzyme Assays and Kinetics

Enzyme kinetics describes the catalytic effects of enzymes, which are biomolecules that facilitate chemical reactions necessary for living organisms. ...

DNA Ligation Reactions

In molecular biology, ligation refers to the joining of two DNA fragments through the formation of a phosphodiester bond.  An enzyme known as a ligase ...

explant-culture-for-developmental-studies

Explant Culture for Developmental Studies

Explant culture is a technique in which living cells or tissues are removed from an embryo for continued development outside of the organism. This ex vivo ...

DNA Methylation Analysis

Methylation at CpG dinucleotides is a chemical modification of DNA hypothesized to play important roles in regulating gene expression. In particular, the ...

Expression Profiling with Microarrays

Microarrays are important tools for profiling gene expression, and are based on complementary binding between probes that are attached to glass chips and ...

Density Gradient Ultracentrifugation

Density gradient ultracentrifugation is a common technique used to isolate and purify biomolecules and cell structures. This technique exploits the fact ...

F&#246;rster Resonance Energy Transfer (FRET)

F&#246;rster resonance energy transfer (FRET) is a phenomenon used to investigate close-range biochemical interactions. In FRET, a donor photoluminescent ...

detecting-environmental-microorganisms-with-polymerase-chain-reaction

Detecting Environmental Microorganisms with the Polymerase Chain Reaction and Gel Electrophoresis

Source: Laboratories of Dr. Ian Pepper and Dr. Charles Gerba - Arizona University
Demonstrating Author: Bradley Schmitz
Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) is ...

Gel Purification

Gel purification is used to recover DNA fragments after electrophoretic separation. DNA recovery from an agarose gel includes three basic steps: binding, ...

Detecting Reactive Oxygen Species

Reactive oxygen species are chemically active, oxygen-derived molecules capable of oxidizing other molecules. Because of their reactive nature, there are ...

Gene Silencing with Morpholinos

Morpholino-mediated gene silencing is a common technique used to study roles of specific genes during development. Morpholinos inhibit gene expression by ...

development-and-reproduction-of-the-laboratory-mouse

Development and Reproduction of the Laboratory Mouse

Successful breeding of the laboratory mouse (Mus musculus) is critical to the establishment and maintenance of a productive animal colony. Additionally, ...

Genetic Crosses

To dissect genetic processes or create organisms with novel suites of traits, scientists can perform genetic crosses, or the purposeful mating of two ...

drosophila-melanogaster-embryo-and-larva-harvesting-and-preparation

Drosophila melanogaster Embryo and Larva Harvesting and Preparation

Drosophila melanogaster embryos and larvae are easy to manipulate and develop rapidly by mechanisms that are analogous to other organisms, including ...

Construct an explanation based on evidence for how the structure of DNA determines the structure of proteins which carry out the essential functions of life through systems of specialized cells.

HS-LS1-1.

Elbow Injury Checks and Stability Tests

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