Name: electron spin and orbital pairing
Uploaded: 2020-09-03T13:38:27.000Z
Duration: 3 min 6 s
Channel: JoVE

K12 Standards

Texas Essential Knowledge and Skills

High School

Chemistry and Physics

IPC.7

IPC.7.E

The Pauli Exclusion Principle

Атомные орбитали это области, в которых наиболее вероятно обнаружение электронов атома. Но сколько электронов может удерживать каждая орбиталь? Принцип исключения Паули отвечает на этот вопрос, поскольку он означает, что никакие два электрона в атоме не могут иметь одинаковый набор из четырех квантовых чисел.Каждая орбиталь соответствует фиксированному принципу;угловому или азимутальному моменту;и значению магнитного квантового числа. Например, главное квантовое число электрона на орбитали 1s всегда равно единице, а азимутальное и магнитное квантовые числа равны нулю. Соответственно, электроны должны иметь разные значения спинового квантового числа или спина, чтобы находиться на одной и той же атомной орбитали.Напомним, что квантовое число спина имеет только два возможных значения:1/2 и 1/2. Следовательно, одну орбиталь могут занимать только два электрона. Следовательно, каждый подуровень s, который имеет одну орбиталь, может вмещать только два электрона, а каждый подуровень p, имеющий три орбитали, может вмещать шесть электронов.Каждый из подуровней d и f имеет максимальную емкость десять и четырнадцать электронов соответственно. Распределение электронов по атомным орбиталям представлено электронной конфигурацией атома в текстовом виде или в виде диаграммы. Рассмотрим атом водорода в основном состоянии, где один электрон занимает орбиталь с наименьшей энергией:1 s.Записанная электронная конфигурация обозначает каждый занятый подуровень номером соответствующего уровня, буквой подуровня и верхним индексом, указывающим количество электронов в подуровне. Стиль орбитальной диаграммы электронной конфигурации обозначает каждую орбиталь внутри занятого подуровня как прямоугольник или линию, а каждый электрон как стрелку. Стрелка вверх указывает на спин 1/2 или спин вверх, а стрелка вниз обозначает спин 1/2 или спин вниз.Таким образом, орбитальная диаграмма водорода имеет одну стрелку, направленную вверх. Электронная конфигурация гелия 1s^2. Два электрона имеют три одинаковых квантовых числа, поскольку находятся на одном уровне и подуровне.Их спиновые квантовые числа различны в соответствии с принципом исключения Паули. Электроны с противоположными спинами называются парными"если они занимают одну и ту же орбиталь. Для лития, имеющего атомный номер три, два электрона на 1s-орбитали спарены, а электрон на 2s-орбитали не спарен.По соглашению, неспаренные электроны представляют со спином вверх.

Принцип исключения Паули

Расположение электронов в орбиталях атома называется его электронной конфигурацией. Мы описываем конфигурацию электрона символом, содержащим три части информации: 
 
 <ol>
 <li>Номер главной квантовой оболочки, n, </li>
 <li>Буква, обозначающей орбитальный тип (подоболочка, l), и. </li>
 <li>Надстрочный номер, обозначающий количество электронов в данной подоболочке. </li>
 </ol>
 
 Например, обозначение 2р4 указывает на четыре электрона вр подоболочке (l = 1) с главным квантовым числом (n) 2. Обозначение 3d  8 указывает на восемь электронов в подоболочке d ( l = 2) основной оболочки, для которой n = 3. 
 
 В то время как три квантовых числа хорошо работают для описания электронных орбиталей, некоторые эксперименты показали, что их было недостаточно для объяснения всех наблюдаемых результатов. В 1920-х годах было продемонстрировано, что при рассмотрении спектров водородной линии с чрезвычайно высоким разрешением некоторые линии на самом деле не являются единичными пиками, а, скорее, парами близко расположенных линий. Это так называемая тонкая структура спектра, и это означает, что существуют дополнительные небольшие различия в энергиях электронов, даже если они расположены в одной и той же орбите. Эти наблюдения заставили Самуэля Гаудсмита и Джорджа Уленбека предложить электронам четвёртое квантовое число. Они назвали это спин-квантовым числом или мс. 
 
 В приложенном магнитном поле электрон имеет две возможные ориентации с разными энергиями, одна с развинчиваемым, выровненная с магнитным полем, а другая со спин-down, выровненная относительно него. 
 
 Четвертое квантовое число, число спиновых квантовых чисел (мс) описывает эти два различных спиновых состояния электрона. Квантовое число спина имеет два возможных значения: -1/2 (замедление вращения) и +половины (увеличение скорости вращения). 
 
 Электронный спин описывает «вращение» или «вращение» собственного электрона. Каждый электрон выступает в роли маленького магнита или маленького вращающегося объекта с угловым импульсом или в качестве петли с электрическим током, даже если такое вращение или ток невозможно наблюдать с точки зрения пространственных координат. 
 
 Величина общего спинового потока электронов может иметь только одно значение, а электрон может “вращаться” только в одном из двух квантованных состояний. Одно называется состоянием α, при этом z-компонент спина находится в положительном направлении оси z. Это соответствует квантовому числу спина мс = +1/2. Другое называется состоянием β, при этом z-компонент спина является отрицательным и MS = -1/2. 
 
 Любой электрон, независимо от того, в какой орбитали атома он находится, может иметь только одно из этих двух значений спинового квантового числа. Энергии электронов, имеющих разные спины, отличаются, если применяется внешнее магнитное поле. 
 
 Электрон в атоме полностью описан четырьмя квантовыми числами: n, l, ml, и MS. Первые три квантовых числа определяют орбиту и являются взаимозависимыми, в то время как четвертое квантовое число не зависит от других квантовых чисел, так как оно описывает свойственное электронам свойство, называемое спин. Австрийский физик Вольфганг Паули (Нобелевская премия по физике: 1945) сформулировал общий принцип, который дает последнюю информацию, которая нам нужна для понимания общего поведения электронов в атомах. Принцип исключения Паули можно сформулировать следующим образом: Ни один из двух электронов в одном атоме не может иметь точно такой же набор из всех четырех квантовых чисел. Это означает, что два электрона могут совместно использовать один и тот же орбитальный (один и тот же набор квантовых чисел n, l и ml) только в том случае, если их спиновые квантовые числа имеют разные значения. Так как число спинов-квантовых чисел (мс) может иметь только два значения +половины и -1/2, не более двух электронов могут занимать одну орбиту (и если два электрона расположены на одной орбите, то они должны иметь противоположные спины). Таким образом, любая атомная орбитальная точка может быть заполнена только нулевым, одним или двумя электронами. 
 
 Стиль орбитальной диаграммы конфигурации электронов представляет каждый орбитальный контур в пределах оккупированной подоболочки как прямоугольник или линию, а каждый электрон как стрелка. Орбитальная диаграмма водорода, в которой электрон имеет конфигурацию 1s1, составляет: 
 
 <img alt=""Figure1"" src=""https://www.jove.com/files/core/CDNSource/lessons/984/984Image_1.png"" style=""height: 40px;"" />
 
 Стрелка, направленная вверх, означает вращение на плюс-половину или вращение вверх, а стрелка вниз - на отрицательное вращение или вращение вниз. Следовательно, на орбитальной диаграмме водорода есть одна стрелка, направленная вверх. 
 
 Электронная конфигурация гелия 1 с 2 . Два электрона имеют три одинаковых квантовых числа, поскольку они принадлежат одной оболочке и подоболочке. Их спиновые квантовые числа различны в соответствии с принципом исключения Паули. Электроны с противоположными спинами называются парными, если они занимают одну и ту же орбиталь. 
 
 <img alt="Figure2" src="https://www.jove.com/files/core/CDNSource/lessons/984/984Image_2.png" style="height: 40px;" />
 
 Этот текст адаптирован из <a 6-3-development-of-quantum-theory="" books="" chemistry-2e="" href="" https:="" openstax.org="" pages="">Openstax, Химия 2е изд., раздел 6.3: Развитие квантовой теории.  </a>

Расположение электронов на орбиталях атома называется его электронной конфигурацией. Мы описываем электронную конфигурацию с помощью символа, который ...

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Electronic Structure of Atoms

Электронное строение атомов

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ОСНОВНЫЕ ТЕРМИНЫ И ПОНЯТИЯ

electron spin and orbital pairing

Electron spin and orbital pairing explain why only two electrons can fit in one atomic orbital. Electron configuration describes how electrons are arranged in an atom’s orbitals. It is written with three parts: the principal quantum number, n, the orbital type, or subshell, and a superscript that shows how many electrons are in that subshell. For example, 2p4 means four electrons in a p subshell with n = 2, and 3d8 means eight electrons in a d subshell with n = 3.

The three quantum numbers describe orbitals well, but they do not explain every experimental result. In the 1920s, very high-resolution hydrogen spectra showed fine structure, where some lines split into two close peaks instead of one. This suggested that electrons in the same orbital can still have small energy differences. Samuel Goudsmit and George Uhlenbeck proposed a fourth quantum number to explain this behavior. They called it the spin quantum number, ms.

An electron can have two spin states in an external magnetic field. One state is spin up, which aligns with the magnetic field, and the other is spin down, which points against it. The spin quantum number has only two values, +1/2 and -1/2. These are also called the alpha and beta states. Electron spin is an intrinsic property, so each electron behaves like a tiny magnet, even though this motion cannot be observed in normal space.

A complete electron description uses four quantum numbers: n, l, ml, and ms. The first three quantum numbers define the orbital and depend on one another. The spin quantum number is independent because it describes the electron’s spin. Austrian physicist Wolfgang Pauli used this idea to state the Pauli exclusion principle. It says that no two electrons in the same atom can have the same set of all four quantum numbers.

This principle means that two electrons may share the same orbital only if their spin quantum numbers are different. Because ms has only two possible values, no more than two electrons can occupy one orbital. An atomic orbital can therefore hold zero, one, or two electrons. In orbital diagrams, each orbital is shown as a box or line and each electron as an arrow. A hydrogen atom with configuration 1s1 has one upward arrow, which means one spin-up electron.

Helium has the configuration 1s2. Its two electrons share the same shell and subshell, so they have three identical quantum numbers. They differ in spin, which follows the Pauli exclusion principle. Electrons with opposite spins in the same orbital are called paired.

Electron Spin and Orbital Pairing

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Electron Orbitals and Spin

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Electron regions in atomic orbitals show where an electron is most likely to be found in an atom. These three-dimensional regions are often drawn as boundary surfaces around the densest part of the cloud. The shape of an orbital depends on the angular momentum quantum number, l. This value can range from 0 to n - 1, where n is the principal quantum number. For n = 1, only l = 0 is allowed. For n = 2, both l = 0 and l = 1 are allowed. Orbitals with the same value of l form a subshell. The l =...

the pauli exclusion principle

Electron spin and orbital pairing explain why only two electrons can fit in one atomic orbital. Electron configuration describes how electrons are arranged in an atom’s orbitals. It is written with three parts: the principal quantum number, n, the orbital type, or subshell, and a superscript that shows how many electrons are in that subshell. For example, 2p4 means four electrons in a p subshell with n = 2, and 3d8 means eight electrons in a d subshell with n = 3. The three quantum numbers...

the energies of atomic orbitals

Shielding and Orbital Penetration

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electron configuration of multielectron atoms

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Valence electrons and noble gas shorthand help show how electrons are arranged in multielectron atoms. Sodium, the alkali metal with atomic number 11, has one more electron than neon. That extra electron goes into the lowest-energy subshell available, the 3s orbital, so sodium has the configuration 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1. Electrons in the outermost shell, where n is highest, are called valence electrons. Electrons in the inner shells are called core electrons. Because core electrons often match a...

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Learn how electron spin, quantum numbers, and orbital pairing explain why each atomic orbital holds at most two electrons in high school chemistry.

Electron Spin and Orbital Pairing | JoVE K12

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Electron Configuration and Chemical Properties

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Molar Mass

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Physical and Chemical Properties of Matter

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Physical Properties of Matter

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Ionic Radii

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Ionization Energy

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Electron Affinity

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Alkali Metals

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Halogens

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Noble Gases


The elements in group 18 are noble gases (helium, neon, argon, krypton, xenon, and radon). They earned the name &ldquo;noble&rdquo; because they were ...

Use patterns within the Periodic Table to predict the relative physical and chemical properties of elements.

IPC.7.B

Classifying Matter by State

Chemistry is the study of matter and the changes it undergoes. Matter is anything that has mass and occupies space. Matter is all around us; the air, ...

Classifying Matter by Composition

Matter: Pure Substances and Mixtures
According to its composition, the matter can be classified into two broad categories &mdash; pure substances and ...

Phase Transitions

Whether solid, liquid, or gas, a substance&#39;s state depends on the order and arrangement of its particles (atoms, molecules, or ions). Particles in the ...

phase-transitions-vaporization-and-condensation

Phase Transitions: Vaporization and Condensation

The physical form of a substance changes on changing its temperature. For example, raising the temperature of a liquid causes the liquid to vaporize ...

Phase Transitions: Melting and Freezing

Heating a crystalline solid increases the average energy of its atoms, molecules, or ions, and the solid gets hotter. At some point, the added energy ...

phase-transitions-sublimation-and-deposition

Phase Transitions: Sublimation and Deposition

Some solids can transition directly into the gaseous state, bypassing the liquid state, via a process known as sublimation. At room temperature and ...

Melting Points

Melting Points in Organic Chemistry
The melting point of a compound is the temperature at which the solid phase transitions into the liquid phase at a ...

Boiling Points

Source: Lara Al Hariri at the University of Massachusetts Amherst, MA, USA

	Preparation of the LaboratoryExpand
	Here, we show the laboratory preparation ...

Explain how physical and chemical properties of substances are related to their usage in everyday life such as in sunscreen, cookware, industrial applications, and fuels.

IPC.7.C

Emission Spectra

When solids, liquids, or condensed gases are heated sufficiently, they radiate some of the excess energy as light. Photons produced in this manner have a ...

Metal Flame Emission

Metal Flame Emission
Flame testing is an analytical technique where a sample is placed in a flame, and the characteristic flame color is used to identify ...

Atomic Orbitals

An atomic orbital represents the three-dimensional regions in an atom where an electron has the highest probability to reside. The radial distribution ...

The arrangement of electrons in the orbitals of an atom is called its electron configuration. We describe an electron configuration with a symbol that ...

The Energies of Atomic Orbitals

In an atom, the negatively charged electrons are attracted to the positively charged nucleus. In a multielectron atom, electron-electron repulsions are ...

Explain how electrons can transition from a high energy level to a low energy state, emitting photons at different frequencies for different energy transitions.

Science concepts. The student knows that relationships exist between the structure and properties of matter. The student is expected to:

Electron Spin and Orbital Pairing

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