Name: ionization energy trends in the periodic table
Uploaded: 2020-09-03T13:38:28.000Z
Duration: 3 min 12 s
Channel: JoVE

K12 Standards

north-carolina-k-12-science-standard-course-of-study

NC K-12 Science Standard Course of Study

9-12

Chemistry

Matter and its Interactions

PS.Chm.2.2

Ionization Energy

На химическое поведение атомов и ионов сильно влияет то, насколько легко или сложно оторвать их электроны, особенно самые удаленные электроны, которые участвуют в образовании химических связей. Энергия, необходимая для отрыва электрона от газового атома в его основном состоянии, называется первой энергией ионизации и выражается в килоджоулях на моль. Энергия, необходимая для отрыва следующего электрона, называется второй энергией ионизации и так далее.При движении вниз по столбцу энергии ионизации уменьшаются. Напомним, что максимальное главное квантовое число валентных электронов увеличивается вниз по столбцу, что приводит к увеличению размеров атомов. Таким образом, чем дальше находятся внешние электроны, тем легче их оторвать.Для элементов основной группы энергия ионизации в периоде увеличивается. Причина кроется в увеличивающемся атомном номере, где валентные электроны воспринимают более высокий эффективный заряд ядра, что затрудняет отрыв самых удаленных электронов. Это объясняет, почему хлор имеет более высокую энергию ионизации, чем, например, натрий.Как правило, энергия ионизации минимальна для щелочного металла и достигает максимума к благородному газу. Переходные металлы демонстрируют небольшое увеличение энергии ионизации в периоде, а элементы f-блока демонстрируют еще меньшее изменение. Но есть некоторые исключения.Бор имеет меньшую энергию ионизации, чем бериллий, хотя в периодической таблице он находится правее. Бериллий имеет более низкую энергию 2s электронов, тогда как бор имеет более высокую энергию 2p электронов, что делает его отрыв энергетически более выгодным. Другое исключение кислород, у которого первая энергия ионизации ниже, чем у азота.По сравнению с азотом, кислород имеет четыре p-электрона, и отрыв одного электрона устраняет электрон-электронное отталкивание. Таким образом, для ионизации требуется меньше энергии. Эти исключения наблюдаются и в последующих периодах.Отрыв электронов у катионов сложнее, чем у нейтральных атомов. Как правило, последовательные энергии ионизации элементов увеличиваются. Рассмотрим калий.Вторая энергия ионизации значительно выше, так как она включает отрыв остовного электрона у иона с конфигурацией благородного газа. Аналогичным образом, для кальция наблюдается значительное увеличение третьей энергии ионизации по сравнению со второй, поскольку остовный электрон отрывается у катиона с конфигурацией благородного газа.

Энергия ионизации

Количество энергии, необходимое для удаления наиболее свободно связанных электронов из газообразного атома в его наземном состоянии, называется его первой энергией ионизации (IE1). Первая энергия ионизации для элемента X — это энергия, необходимая для образования катиона с более чем 1 зарядом: 
 
 <img alt=""Eq1"" src=""https://www.jove.com/files/core/CDNSource/lessons/1049/1049_Equations-01.png"" style=""height: 40px;"" />
 
 Энергия, необходимая для удаления второго, наиболее слабо связанного электрона, называется второй энергией ионизации (IE2). 
 
 <img alt=""Eq2"" src=""https://www.jove.com/files/core/CDNSource/lessons/1049/1049_Equations-02.png"" style=""height: 40px;"" />
 
 Энергия, необходимая для удаления третьего электрона, называется третьей энергией ионизации и так далее. Энергия всегда требуется для удаления электронов с атомов или ионов, поэтому процессы ионизации являются эндотермическими, а значения IE всегда положительны. Для более крупных атомов электрон с неплотным связом расположен дальше от ядра, и поэтому его легче удалить. Таким образом, по мере увеличения размера (атомного радиуса), энергия ионизации должна уменьшаться.  
 
 В течение периода IE1 обычно увеличивается с увеличением Z. Down группы, значение IE1 обычно уменьшается с увеличением Z. однако, есть некоторые систематические отклонения от этой тенденции. Обратите внимание, что энергия ионизации бора (атомный номер 5) меньше энергии, чем у буйя (атомный номер 4), даже если ядерный заряд бора больше одним протонами. Это объясняется тем, что энергия подоболочек увеличивается по мере увеличения l, благодаря проникновению и экранированию. В любой оболочке электроны s меньше в энергии, чем электроны p. Это означает, что электрон с атомом труднее удалить, чем электрон p в одной оболочке. Электрон, удаляемый во время ионизации с2 ([HE]2s2), является электроном, тогда как электрон, удаляемый во время ионизации бора ([HE]2s22p1), является электроном p; это приводит к снижению первой энергии ионизации для бора, даже если его ядерный заряд больше одним протонами. Таким образом, мы видим небольшое отклонение от прогнозируемой тенденции, возникающей при каждом запуске новой подоболочки. 
 
 Другое отклонение возникает, когда орбит заполняется более чем наполовину. Первая энергия ионизации кислорода немного меньше энергии азота, несмотря на тенденцию увеличения значений IE1 за определенный период времени. Для кислорода удаление одного электрона устранит электронно-электронное отталкивание, вызванное сопряжением электронов на орбите 2р, и приведет к полузаполненной орбите (которая энергетически выгодна). Аналогичные изменения происходят в последующие периоды. 
 
 Удаление электрона из катиона более затруднительно, чем удаление электрона из нейтрального атома из-за большего электростатического притяжения к катионе. Кроме того, удаление электрона из катиона с более высоким положительным зарядом сложнее, чем удаление электрона из иона с более низким зарядом. Таким образом, последовательные энергии ионизации для одного элемента всегда увеличиваются. Как видно из таблицы 1, энергии ионизации для каждого элемента значительно увеличиваются. Этот скачок соответствует удалению электронов ядра, которые труднее удалить, чем электроны валентности. Например, SC и GA имеют три валентных электрона, поэтому быстрое увеличение энергии ионизации происходит после третьей ионизации. 
 
 Таблица 1: Последовательные энергии ионизации для выбранных элементов (кДж/моль) 
 
 <table style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">
 <tbody style="border: 1px solid black;">
 <tr>
 <td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">Element</td>
 <td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">IE1</td>
 <td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">IE2</td>
 <td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">IE3</td>
 <td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">IE4</td>
 <td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">IE5</td>
 <td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">IE6</td>
 <td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">IE7</td>
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 <td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">7975.5</td>
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 <td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">8153.0</td>
 <td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">10495.7</td>
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 <tr>
 <td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">Sc</td>
 <td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">633.1</td>
 <td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">1235.0</td>
 <td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">2388.7</td>
 <td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">7090.6</td>
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 <td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">1979.4</td>
 <td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">2964.6</td>
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 <td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">8298.7</td>
 <td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">10873.9</td>
 <td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">13594.8</td>
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 <tr>
 <td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">Ge</td>
 <td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">762.2</td>
 <td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">1537.5</td>
 <td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">3302.1</td>
 <td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">4410.6</td>
 <td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">9021.4</td>
 <td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">Недоступно</td>
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 <tr>
 <td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">As</td>
 <td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">944.5</td>
 <td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">1793.6</td>
 <td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding: 10px; ">2735.5</td>
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 </tr>
 </tbody>
 </table>
 
 Этот текст адаптирован из <a href="https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-2e/pages/6-5-periodic-variations-in-element-properties">OpenStax Химия 2e, раздел 6.5: Периодические изменения свойств элемента.</a>

Количество энергии, необходимое для удаления наиболее слабо связанного электрона из газообразного атома в его основном состоянии, называется его первой энергией ионизации.

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Periodic Properties of the Elements

Периодические свойства элементов

KEY TERMS AND CONCEPTS

ОСНОВНЫЕ ТЕРМИНЫ И ПОНЯТИЯ

ionization energy trends in the periodic table

Ionization energy is the energy needed to remove an electron from a gaseous atom or ion in its ground state. The first ionization energy, or IE1, removes the most loosely bound electron and forms a 1+ cation. The second ionization energy, IE2, removes the next electron, and each later ionization energy removes another electron from the atom or ion.

Ionization always requires energy, so these processes are endothermic. That means ionization energy values are always positive. In general, larger atoms have lower ionization energy because their outermost electrons are farther from the nucleus and easier to remove.

Across a period, first ionization energy generally increases as atomic number increases. Down a group, first ionization energy generally decreases as atomic number increases. The trend is useful, but there are some clear exceptions.

One exception appears when a new subshell begins. Boron has a lower first ionization energy than beryllium, even though boron has one more proton. This happens because s electrons are lower in energy than p electrons in the same shell, so the s electron in beryllium is harder to remove than the p electron in boron. The effect comes from penetration and shielding.

Another exception appears when a p subshell becomes more than half filled. Oxygen has a slightly lower first ionization energy than nitrogen. Removing one electron from oxygen reduces electron-electron repulsion in the 2p orbital and gives a more stable half-filled orbital.

Successive ionization energies always increase. It is harder to remove an electron from a cation than from a neutral atom because the positive charge pulls more strongly on the remaining electrons. It is even harder to remove an electron from a cation with a higher positive charge.

The large jump in successive ionization energies shows when core electrons begin to be removed. Core electrons are harder to remove than valence electrons. For example, scandium and gallium both have three valence electrons, so the sharp rise in ionization energy comes after the third ionization. The table of values for K, Ca, Sc, Ga, Ge, and As shows this pattern clearly.

Ionization Energy Trends in the Periodic Table

periodic classification of the elements

How Valence Electrons Shape the Periodic Table

The periodic table organizes elements by increasing atomic number, and it also shows why elements in the same group behave alike. As the electron configurations are placed into the table, a repeating pattern appears in the outer shells of atoms. These outer electrons are called valence electrons, and they play the biggest role in chemical reactions. They are the highest-energy electrons in an atom, so they are easier to lose or share than core electrons. Valence electrons also help determine...

ionization energy

Ionization energy is the energy needed to remove an electron from a gaseous atom or ion in its ground state. The first ionization energy, or IE1, removes the most loosely bound electron and forms a 1+ cation. The second ionization energy, IE2, removes the next electron, and each later ionization energy removes another electron from the atom or ion. Ionization always requires energy, so these processes are endothermic. That means ionization energy values are always positive. In general, larger...

atomic radii and effective nuclear charge

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Periodic Trends in Atomic Size

Periodic trends in atomic size help explain why atoms get larger or smaller across the periodic table. Elements in the same group show similar chemical behavior because they have the same number and arrangement of valence electrons. Across a period, each new element adds one proton to the nucleus and one electron to the valence shell. Down a group, the number of valence electrons stays the same, but the principal quantum number increases by one. Atomic radius is not easy to define with perfect...

ionic radii

How Ionic Charge Changes Ion Size

Ionic radius describes the size of an ion. It changes when an atom gains or loses electrons. Cations are positive ions with fewer electrons than the parent atom, and they are smaller than the atoms they come from. Aluminum shows this pattern clearly. A neutral aluminum atom has a covalent radius of 118 pm, while Al3+ has an ionic radius of 68 pm. When electrons are removed from the outer valence shell, the remaining core electrons feel a stronger effective nuclear charge, or Zeff. That pull...

electron affinity

Electron Affinity Trends on the Periodic Table

Electron affinity is the energy change that happens when a gaseous atom gains an electron and becomes a negative ion, or anion. For many elements, this process releases energy, so the electron affinity value is negative. For some elements, energy must be added instead, so the value is positive. Electron affinity also applies when more than one electron is added. The second electron affinity is the energy change for adding an electron to an anion to make a 2− ion. Later electron affinities...

alkali metals

Alkali Metals: Reactivity Trends

Alkali metals are Group 1 elements with one valence electron. They are soft, shiny metallic solids that are malleable, ductile, and good conductors of heat and electricity. Their melting points are unusually low for metals and drop as you move down the group. Density generally increases down the group, except for potassium. The trend in atomic size helps explain their behavior. Moving from lithium to cesium, each element has a higher principal quantum number, so the outer electron is farther...

halogens

Halogens: Trends and Reactions

Halogens are Group 17 nonmetals that show clear trends in structure and reactivity. At room temperature, fluorine and chlorine are gases, bromine is a liquid, and iodine is a solid. Astatine is highly unstable and radioactive, so most of its properties are still unknown because it has a very short half-life. Tennessine is a synthetic element that is also predicted to belong to this group. These elements do not usually exist as single atoms. Instead, they form diatomic molecules, which means...

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Noble Gases: Sources, Uses, and Reactions

Noble gases are the group 18 elements helium, neon, argon, krypton, xenon, and radon. They were called “noble” because they were once thought to be nonreactive. That idea changed in 1962, when Dr. Neil Bartlett at the University of British Columbia showed that this assumption was not fully correct. These gases occur in very small amounts in the atmosphere. Some natural gas contains 1–2% helium by mass. Helium is separated from natural gas by removing the condensable components, which leaves...

key terms and concepts

Explore first and successive ionization energy, periodic trends, and key exceptions such as boron, oxygen, and the jump to core electrons.

Ionization Energy Trends in the Periodic Table | JoVE K12

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Periodic Table Trends: Atomic Radii, Ionization, and Electronegativity

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The earliest recorded discussion of the basic structure of matter comes from ancient Greek philosophers. Leucippus and Democritus argued that all matter ...

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The difference between the calculated and experimentally measured masses is known as the mass defect of the atom. In the case of helium-4, the mass defect ...

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Radioactivity is a spontaneous disintegration of an unstable nuclide and is a random process, as all the nuclei in the sample do not decay simultaneously. ...

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The process of converting very light nuclei into heavier nuclei is also accompanied by the conversion of mass into large amounts of energy, a process ...

Nuclear Transmutation

Nuclear transmutation is the conversion of one nuclide into another. It can occur by the radioactive decay of a nucleus, or the reaction of a nucleus with ...

Use models to compare nuclear reactions including alpha decay, beta decay and gamma decay; nuclear fusion and nuclear fission.

PS.Chm.1.2

Atomic Orbitals

An atomic orbital represents the three-dimensional regions in an atom where an electron has the highest probability to reside. The radial distribution ...

The Pauli Exclusion Principle

The arrangement of electrons in the orbitals of an atom is called its electron configuration. We describe an electron configuration with a symbol that ...

The Energies of Atomic Orbitals

In an atom, the negatively charged electrons are attracted to the positively charged nucleus. In a multielectron atom, electron-electron repulsions are ...

The Aufbau Principle and Hund's Rule

To determine the electron configuration for any particular atom, we can build the structures in the order of atomic numbers. Beginning with hydrogen, and ...

electron-configuration-of-multielectron-atoms

Electron Configuration of Multielectron Atoms

The alkali metal sodium (atomic number 11) has one more electron than the neon atom. This electron must go into the lowest-energy subshell available, the ...

Use models to explain how electrons are distributed in atoms.

PS.Chm.1.3

Periodic Classification of the Elements

The periodic table arranges atoms based on increasing atomic number so that elements with the same chemical properties recur periodically. When their ...

The Periodic Table

As early chemists discovered more elements, they realized that various elements could be grouped by their similar chemical behaviors. One such grouping ...

Atomic Mass

Atoms &mdash; and the protons, neutrons, and electrons that compose them &mdash; are extremely small. For example, a carbon atom weighs less than 2 ...

Molar Mass

The identity of a substance is defined not only by the types of atoms or ions it contains but by the quantity of each type of atom or ion. For example, ...

Use the Periodic Table as a model to predict the relative properties of elements based on the pattern of valence electrons in the outermost energy levels of atoms.

PS.Chm.2.1

Atomic Radii and Effective Nuclear Charge

The elements in groups of the periodic table exhibit similar chemical behavior. This similarity occurs because the members of a group have the same number ...

Ionic Radii

Ionic radius is the measure used to describe the size of an ion. A cation always has fewer electrons and the same number of protons as the parent atom; it ...

The amount of energy required to remove the most loosely bound electron from a gaseous atom in its ground state is called its first ionization energy ...

Electron Affinity

The electron affinity (EA) is the energy change for adding an electron to a gaseous atom to form an anion (negative ion).



This process can be either ...

Construct an explanation to infer the atomic size, reactivity, electronegativity, and ionization energy of an element based on its position in the Periodic Table.

Types of Chemical Bonds

Chemical bonding theories were pioneered by American chemist Gilbert&#xA0;N. Lewis. He developed a model called the Lewis model to explain the type and ...

Lewis Symbols and the Octet Rule

Chemical bonds are complex interactions between two or more atoms or ions, which reduce the potential energy of the molecule. Gilbert N. Lewis developed a ...

Ionic Bonding and Electron Transfer

Ions are atoms or molecules bearing an electrical charge. A cation (a positive ion) forms when a neutral atom loses one or more electrons from its valence ...

The Born-Haber Cycle

Lattice Energy&#xA0;

An ionic compound is stable because of the electrostatic attraction between its positive and negative ions. The lattice energy of a ...

trends-in-lattice-energy-ion-size-and-charge

Trends in Lattice Energy: Ion Size and Charge

An ionic compound is stable because of the electrostatic attraction between its positive and negative ions. The lattice energy of a compound is a measure ...

Covalent Bonding and Lewis Structures

Compared to ionic bonds, which results from the transfer of electrons between metallic and nonmetallic atoms, covalent bonds result from the mutual ...

Electronegativity

Whether a bond is nonpolar or polar covalent is determined by a property of the bonding atoms called electronegativity.&#xA0;

Electronegativity values of ...

bond-polarity-dipole-moment-and-percent-ionic-character

Bond Polarity, Dipole Moment, and Percent Ionic Character

Bond Polarity

The absolute value of the difference in electronegativity (&Delta;EN) of two bonded atoms provides a rough measure of the polarity to be ...

Analyze and interpret data to explain the mechanisms and properties of the two main types of intramolecular (ionic and covalent) bonds.

PS.Chm.3.1

Analyze the structure of atoms and isotopes.

Ionization Energy Trends in the Periodic Table

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