Name: voltage in electric circuits
Uploaded: 2024-04-11T12:48:28.000Z
Duration: 1 min 13 s
Channel: JoVE

K12 Standards

ohios-learning-standards-and-model-curriculum

Ohio’s Learning Standards and Model Curriculum

9-12

Physical Science

Energy And Waves

Electricity

Voltage

Движение электронов в проводнике требует некоторой формы энергии или работы, обычно обеспечиваемой внешней силой, такой как батарея. Эта сила называется электродвижущей силой или напряжением.
Напряжение означает энергию, необходимую для транспортировки единицы заряда между двумя точками. Его также называют разностью потенциалов и измеряют в вольтах.
Знаки плюс и минус определяют направление или полярность напряжения.
Напряжение можно воспринимать двумя способами: потенциал в точке а можно описать как Vab вольт выше, чем потенциал в точке b, или потенциал в точке a относительно точки b равен Vab.
Кроме того, падение напряжения от a до b эквивалентно повышению напряжения от b до a.
Напряжение может быть постоянным или изменяющимся во времени. Постоянное напряжение, обычно производимое батареей, называется постоянным напряжением. Он используется в портативной технике, работающей от батареек.
Синусоидально изменяющееся во времени напряжение, производимое электрическими генераторами, является переменным напряжением. Поставляется в дома для работы с приборами.

Напряжение

Движение электронов в проводнике требует некоторой формы энергии или работы, обычно обеспечиваемой внешней силой, например батареей. Эта сила называется электродвижущей силой или напряжением. Напряжение между двумя точками, называемыми точками «а» и «b», в электрической цепи — это энергия (или работа), необходимая для перемещения единичного заряда из точки «а» в точку «b», и это соотношение равно математически выражается как

<img alt="Equation1" src="/files/ftp_upload/15064/15064_PT_Equation_1.svg" style="text-align: center; height: 38px;" />

В этом уравнении «w» представляет собой энергию, измеряемую в джоулях (Дж), а «q» представляет собой заряд, измеряемый в кулонах (Кл). Напряжение, обозначаемое как «v vab», измеряется в вольтах (В).

Напряжение, часто называемое разностью потенциалов, означает энергию, необходимую для перемещения единичного заряда через элемент внутри цепи. Важно отметить, что значение напряжения может быть как положительным, так и отрицательным, а его направление определяется его полярностью, обозначаемой как (+) и (-). В электротехнической терминологии принято говорить, что на элементе существует напряжение. Обозначение «vab» представляет напряжение между точками «a» и «b» и может интерпретироваться двумя разными способами:

<ul style="list-style-type: disc; margin-left: 35px;">
	<li>Точка «а» имеет потенциал на «vab» вольт выше, чем точка «b».</li>
	<li>Потенциал в точке «а» относительно точки «b» составляет «vab» вольт.</li>
</ul>

Постоянное напряжение классифицируется как напряжение постоянного тока (DC), обычно обозначаемое как «V». Напряжения постоянного тока обычно генерируются такими источниками, как батареи. С другой стороны, напряжение, которое синусоидально меняется со временем, называется напряжением переменного тока (AC), обозначаемым буквой «v». Напряжения переменного тока обычно генерируются электрическими генераторами.

Движение электронов в проводнике требует некоторой формы энергии или работы, обычно обеспечиваемой внешней силой, такой как батарея. Эта сила называется...

Education

JoVE Core

Electrical Engineering

Электротехника

Unit 1

Раздел 1

Basics of Electric Circuits

Основы электрических цепей

KEY TERMS AND CONCEPTS

ОСНОВНЫЕ ТЕРМИНЫ И ПОНЯТИЯ

voltage in electric circuits

Voltage in electric circuits is the energy needed to move electric charge between two points. It is also called electromotive force, or EMF. In most circuits, an external force such as a battery provides this energy for electron movement in a conductor.

The voltage between points a and b is written as v_ab. It is defined as the work, or energy, needed to move a unit charge from point a to point b. In the equation, w is the energy in joules and q is the charge in coulombs. Voltage is measured in volts, written as V.

Voltage is often called potential difference. This term means the energy needed to move a unit charge through an element in the circuit. A voltage can be positive or negative. Its sign depends on the polarity marks, shown as (+) and (-).

In circuit language, voltage exists across an element. The notation v_ab can be read in two ways. Point a may be at a potential v_ab volts higher than point b, or the potential at point a can be stated with respect to point b.

A constant voltage is a direct current, or DC, voltage. It is usually written as V and is commonly produced by batteries. A voltage that changes sinusoidally with time is an alternating current, or AC, voltage. It is usually written as v and is commonly produced by electric generators.

Voltage in Electric Circuits

charge and current

Electric Charge in Circuits

Electric charge in circuits explains how charged particles behave in matter and how current is produced. Everyday static effects, like a wool sweater sticking to the body or a shock from a carpet, show charge in action. Charge is an inherent property of atomic particles and is measured in coulombs (C). Matter is made of atoms with electrons, protons, and neutrons. Electrons carry a negative charge (-e), and protons carry a positive charge (+e). These two charges have the same magnitude. An...

voltage

Voltage in electric circuits is the energy needed to move electric charge between two points. It is also called electromotive force, or EMF. In most circuits, an external force such as a battery provides this energy for electron movement in a conductor. The voltage between points a and b is written as v_ab. It is defined as the work, or energy, needed to move a unit charge from point a to point b. In the equation, w is the energy in joules and q is the charge in coulombs. Voltage is measured...

power and energy

Circuit Power, Absorption, and Supply

Circuit power, absorption, and supply explain how much energy an element uses or delivers in an electric circuit. These ideas matter in electrical engineering because power and energy calculations help describe circuit behavior. A 100-watt light bulb, for example, emits more light than a 60-watt bulb, so wattage is a useful measure in real devices. Power is the time rate of expending or absorbing energy. It is measured in watts, written as W. The relation between power and energy uses the...

electric circuit elements

Circuit Elements: Passive, Active, and Linear

Circuit elements are the building blocks of an electric circuit. An electric circuit is the connection of these elements. In this context, circuit elements are often grouped by how they behave and whether they supply energy. One major group is passive elements. These elements do not generate energy. Common passive elements include resistors, capacitors, and inductors. The other group is active elements, which can generate energy. Generators, batteries, and operational amplifiers are typical...

circuit terminology

Circuit Parts: Branches, Nodes, and Loops

Circuit parts like branches, nodes, loops, and meshes help describe how electrical networks work. An electrical network is a system of connected elements, such as resistors, capacitors, inductors, and voltage or current sources. Unlike a circuit, a network does not have to form a closed path. A circuit is also made of connected electrical elements, but it must include one or more closed paths. These loops let current flow continuously, which is what makes the circuit operate. Because of this,...

independent and dependent sources

Circuit Source Symbols and Controls

Circuit sources in electrical circuits can be independent or dependent. They provide the power a circuit needs to operate. Independent voltage sources supply a fixed voltage, and independent current sources supply a fixed current. Their output does not change because of other parts in the circuit. These sources use standard symbols in circuit diagrams. An independent voltage source is shown with + and - signs to mark the potential difference. An independent current source is shown with an...

ohm's law

Resistance and Conductance in Circuits

Resistance and conductance help explain how electric current moves through a circuit. Resistors are basic circuit parts made from metallic alloys or carbon compounds. They are used to model how a material resists current and to control and regulate electrical power in a circuit. Ohm's law describes the link between voltage and current across a resistor. The voltage across a resistor is directly proportional to the current through it. The constant that sets this relationship is resistance.

kirchhoff's current law

Kirchhoff's Current Law at Circuit Nodes

Kirchhoff's Current Law explains how current behaves at a circuit node. A node is the point where two or more circuit elements meet. The law says the current entering a node equals the current leaving it. That balance follows the rule of charge conservation, which means electric charge is not lost at the junction. When applying KCL, currents entering the node are treated as positive and currents leaving the node are treated as negative. The currents can be added algebraically at the node, and...

kirchhoff's voltage law

Voltage Balance in Closed Circuit Loops

Kirchhoff's Voltage Law explains how voltage is balanced in a closed circuit loop. It is a basic rule in electrical engineering and comes from the idea of energy conservation. Energy can change form, but it cannot be created or destroyed. KVL states that the algebraic sum of all voltages around a closed path, or loop, is zero. In other words, the total voltage supplied in a loop equals the total voltage drop across the components in that loop. A loop can be traced clockwise or anticlockwise,...

voltage dividers

Series Resistors and Voltage Split

Series resistors split voltage across a circuit. In a series setup, resistors are linked one after another. The same current flows through each resistor in the chain. To analyze this behavior, Ohm's law is used to relate voltage, current, and resistance. Kirchhoff's voltage law says the voltages around a series loop add up to the source voltage. That means the current in the circuit equals the source voltage divided by the total resistance in series. The current value can then be used in Ohm's...

current dividers

Parallel Resistors and Current Division

Parallel resistors share the same two nodes, so each resistor has the same voltage across it. In this circuit setup, Kirchhoff's current law applies. The source current equals the sum of the currents through each branch. Ohm's law helps find the branch currents from the source voltage and the resistor values. The source current is equal to the source voltage times the sum of the reciprocals of the resistances. This makes it easier to calculate how current divides in the circuit. The current...

equivalent resistance

Delta-Wye Network Conversion

Delta-wye network conversion helps analyze resistor circuits that are not arranged in simple series or parallel paths. These three-terminal equivalent networks use the wye (Y), also called tee (T), and the delta (Δ), also called pi (π), as practical circuit models. These networks are useful in many circuit settings. They appear in three-phase electrical systems, electrical filters, and matching networks. They can also be used on their own or combined with more complex circuits. A delta...

design example: resistive touchscreen

Resistive Touchscreen Voltage Mapping

A resistive touchscreen uses voltage mapping to locate a finger touch on a mobile device. It is built from two metallic layers. The top layer is flexible, and the bottom layer is rigid. A narrow gap separates them, and the high resistance between the layers is an important part of the design. When a user touches the screen, the two layers meet at one point. That contact point is called the touchpoint. The touch lowers the resistance between the layers at that spot and changes the electrical...

key terms and concepts

Learn how voltage moves charge in electric circuits, how to read v_ab, and the difference between DC and AC voltage in high school physics.

Voltage in Electric Circuits | JoVE K12

JoVE Core Electrical Engineering offers easy-to-understand animated videos that cover fundamental concepts of electric circuits along with circuit analysis techniques. It incorporates first-order and second-order circuits using operational amplifiers and circuit transformation concepts. The inclusion of practical design examples and real-world applications through scientist-in-action videos adds significant educational value, making complex concepts accessible.

electrical engineering

Arizona Science Standards

High School

HS+Phy.P4

HS+Phy.P4U1.8

Texas Essential Knowledge and Skills

Physics

PHYS.6

PHYS.6.E

south-carolina-college-and-career-ready-science-standards

South Carolina College and Career Ready Science Standards

motion-and-stability-forces-and-interactions

Motion and Stability: Forces and Interactions

P-PS2-5

Georgia Standards of Excellence

SPS10.

Understanding Electrical Quantities

SP5.

Ohm’s Law

Energy

The universe is composed of matter in different forms, and all forms of matter contain energy.&#160; The different forms of energy on Earth originate from ...

Types of Potential Energy

Potential energy is also known as energy at rest or stored energy. Common types of potential energy include the gravitational potential energy stored in ...

Types of Kinetic Energy

The amount of kinetic energy of an object depends on its mass and speed. Consider two balls of different masses rolling down an inclined plane at the same ...

Gravitational Potential Energy

Potential energy is not just a property of each object, but also a property of the interactions between objects in a chosen system. For each type of ...

Elastic Potential Energy

Elastic potential energy is the energy stored as a result of the deformation of an elastic object, such as the stretching of a spring. An object is ...

Conservation of Mechanical Energy

The mechanical energy E of a system is the sum of its potential energy U and the kinetic energy K of the objects within it. What happens to this ...

/files/media/science-education/science-education-thumbs/14702.jpg

Conservation of Energy

The terms &#39;conserved quantity&#39;&#160;and &#39;conservation law&#39;&#160;have specific scientific meanings in physics, which differ from the ...

Conservation of Energy: Application

When solving problems using the energy conservation law, the object (system) to be studied should first be identified. Often, in applications of energy ...

• Quantifying kinetic energy 
• Quantifying gravitational potential energy

Content elaboration: Energy content learned in middle school, specifically conservation of energy and the basic differences between kinetic and potential energy, is elaborated on and quantified in this course. Energy has no direction and has units of joules (J). Kinetic energy, Ek, can be mathematically represented by $E_{k}=\frac{1}{2}mv^{2}$. Gravitational potential energy, $E_{g}$, can be mathematically represented by $E_{g}=mgh$. The amount of gravitational potential energy of an object is measured relative to a reference that is considered to be at a point of zero energy. The reference may be changed to help understand different situations. Only the change in the amount of energy can be measured absolutely. The conservation of energy and equations for kinetic and gravitational potential energy can be used to calculate values associated with energy (e.g., height, mass, speed) for situations involving energy transfer and transformation. Opportunities to quantify energy from data collected in experimental situations (e.g., a swinging pendulum, a car traveling down an incline) should be provided.

Conservation of energy

Mechanisms of Heat Transfer I

Just as interesting as the effects of heat transfer on a system are the methods by which the heat transfer occur. Whenever there is a temperature ...

Mechanisms of Heat Transfer II

In convection, thermal energy is carried by the large-scale flow of matter. Ocean currents and large-scale atmospheric circulation, which result from the ...

conduction-convection-and-radiation-problem-solving

Conduction, Convection and Radiation: Problem Solving

There are three methods by which heat transfer can take place: conduction, convection, and radiation. Each method has unique and interesting ...

Work

Work is done when energy is transferred from one object to another. In other words, work is when a force acts on something that undergoes a displacement ...

Quantifying Heat

Thermal Energy&#160;

Microscopically, thermal energy is the kinetic energy associated with the random motion of atoms and molecules. Temperature is a ...

Quantifying Work

As a system undergoes a change, its internal energy can change, and energy can be transferred from the system to the surroundings, or from the ...

Transfer and transformation of energy (including work)

Content elaboration: In middle school, concepts of energy transfer and transformation were addressed. Topics included conservation of energy, conduction, convection and radiation, the transformation of electrical energy, and the dissipation of energy into thermal energy. Work was introduced as a method of energy transfer into or out of the system when an outside force moves an object over a distance. In this course, these concepts are further developed. As long as the force, F, and displacement, $\Delta x$ are in the same or opposite directions, work, W, can be calculated from the equation $W=F\Delta x$. Work can also be quantified as $W=\Delta E$. Energy transformations for a phenomenon can be represented through a series of pie graphs or bar graphs. Equations for work, kinetic energy and potential energy can be combined with the law of conservation of energy to solve problems; conceptual understanding of kinetic energy, potential energy and work should be emphasized. [cite: 218, 219] When energy is transferred from one system to another, some of the energy is transformed to thermal energy. Since thermal energy involves the random movement of many trillions of subatomic particles, it is less able to be organized to bring about further change. Therefore, even though the total amount of energy remains constant, less energy is available for doing useful work.

transfer-and-transformation-of-energy-including-work

Transfer and transformation of energy (including work)

Travelling Waves

A wave is a disturbance that propagates from its source, repeating itself periodically, and is typically associated with simple harmonic motion. ...

Wave Parameters

The simplest mechanical waves are associated with simple harmonic motion and repeat themselves for several cycles. These simple harmonic waves can be ...

Interference and Superposition of Waves

When two waves of the same nature occur in the same region simultaneously, they result in interference. Interference of waves implies that the net effect ...

Reflection of Waves

When a wave travels from one medium to another, it gets reflected at the boundary of the second medium. A common example of this is when a person yells at ...

Propagation of Waves

When a wave propagates from one medium to another, part of it may get reflected in the first medium, and part of it may get transmitted to the second ...

Sound Waves

Sound waves can be thought of as fluctuations in the pressure of a medium through which they propagate. Since the pressure also makes the medium&#39;s ...

Sound Waves: Interference

Sound waves can be modeled either as longitudinal waves, wherein the molecules of the medium oscillate around an equilibrium position, or as pressure ...

Interference: Path Lengths

Consider two sources of sound, that may or may not be in phase, emitting waves at a single frequency, and consider the frequencies to be the same.
Two ...

/files/media/science-education/science-education-thumbs/14727.jpg

Sound Waves: Resonance

Resonance is produced depending on the boundary conditions imposed on a wave. Resonance can be produced in a string under tension with symmetrical ...

Electromagnetic Waves

James Clerk Maxwell formulated a single theory combining all the electric and magnetic effects scientists knew during that time, calling the phenomena his ...

The Electromagnetic Spectrum

Electromagnetic waves are categorized according to their wavelengths and frequencies, giving the electromagnetic spectrum. These waves are classified as ...

propagation-speed-of-electromagnetic-waves

Propagation Speed of Electromagnetic Waves

Electromagnetic waves are consistent with Ampere&#39;s law. Assuming there is no conduction current Ampere&#39;s law is given as:


Consider a plane ...

Energy Carried By Electromagnetic Waves

Anyone who has used a microwave oven knows there is energy in electromagnetic waves. Sometimes, this energy is obvious, such as in the summer sun&#39;s ...

Doppler Effect - I

The Doppler effect and Doppler shift were named after the Austrian physicist and mathematician Christian Johann Doppler in 1842, who conducted experiments ...

Doppler Effect - II

The Doppler effect has several practical, real-world applications. For instance, meteorologists use Doppler radars to interpret weather events based on ...

• Refraction, reflection, diffraction, absorption, superposition
• Radiant energy and the electromagnetic spectrum
• Doppler shift

Content elaboration: As addressed in middle school, waves transmit energy from one place to another, can transfer energy between objects and can be described by their speed, wavelength, frequency and amplitude. These concepts were applied to seismic waves traveling through different materials. In elementary and middle school, reflection and refraction of light were introduced, as was absorption of radiant energy by transformation into thermal energy. In this course, these processes are conceptually addressed (not mathematically) from the perspective of waves and expanded to include other types of energy that travel in waves. When a wave encounters a new material, the new material may absorb the energy of the wave by transforming it to another form of energy, usually thermal energy. Waves can be reflected off solid barriers or refracted when a wave travels from one medium into another medium. Waves may undergo diffraction around small obstacles or openings. When two waves traveling through the same medium meet, they pass through each other and continue traveling through the medium as before. When the waves meet, they undergo superposition, demonstrating constructive and destructive interference. Sound travels in waves and undergoes reflection, refraction, interference and diffraction. In Physics, many of these wave phenomena will be studied further and quantified. Radiant energy travels in waves and does not require a medium. Sources of light energy (e.g., the sun, a light bulb) radiate energy continuously in all directions. Radiant energy has a wide range of frequencies, wavelengths and energies arranged into the electromagnetic spectrum. The electromagnetic spectrum is divided into bands that have different applications in everyday life: radio (lowest energy), microwaves, infrared, visible light, ultraviolet, X-rays and gamma rays (highest energy). Radiant energy of the entire electromagnetic spectrum travels at the same speed in a vacuum. Specific frequency, energy, or wavelength ranges of the electromagnetic spectrum are not required. However, the relative positions of the different bands, including the colors of visible light, are important (e.g., ultraviolet has more energy than microwaves). Total radiant energy depends on more than just the frequency. Radiant energy exhibits wave behaviors including reflection, refraction, absorption, superposition and diffraction. For opaque objects (e.g., paper, a chair, an apple), little if any radiant energy is transmitted into the new material. However, the radiant energy can be absorbed, usually increasing the thermal energy of the object and/or the radiant energy can be reflected. For rough objects, the reflection in all directions forms a diffuse reflection and for smooth shiny objects, reflections can result in clear images. Transparent materials transmit most of the energy through the material, but smaller amounts of energy may be absorbed or reflected. Changes in the observed frequency and wavelength of a wave can occur if the wave source and the observer are moving relative to each other. When the source and the observer are moving toward each other, the wavelength is shorter and the observed frequency is higher; when the source and the observer are moving away from each other, the wavelength is longer and the observed frequency is lower. [cite: 253, 254] This phenomenon is called the Doppler shift and can be illustrated by listening to an ambulance siren as it travels past. As discussed in the Universe section of this course, this phenomenon is important to current understanding of how the universe is expanding. As a result, the light we receive from distant galaxies has a noticeable shift toward redder wavelengths (the so-called "redshift"). Calculations to measure the apparent change in frequency or wavelength are not appropriate for this course.

Waves

Energy Basics

Chemical reactions, such as those that occur when you light a match, involve changes in energy as well as matter.

Chemical changes and their accompanying ...

Absorption of Radiation

The rate of heat transfer by emitted radiation is described by the Stefan-Boltzmann law of radiation:

where &#963; is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant, a ...

Phase Transitions

Whether solid, liquid, or gas, a substance&#39;s state depends on the order and arrangement of its particles (atoms, molecules, or ions). Particles in the ...

Heating and Cooling Curves

When a substance&#8212;isolated from its environment&#8212;is subjected to heat changes, corresponding changes in temperature and phase of the substance ...

Phase Diagrams

A phase diagram combines plots of pressure versus temperature for the liquid-gas, solid-liquid, and solid-gas phase-transition equilibria of a substance. ...

Conductors and Insulators

Some materials may easily let electrical charges pass through them, while others obstruct their flow. The former are called conductors and the latter ...

Temperature and Thermal Equilibrium

Heat and temperature are essential concepts for everyone every day. The study of heat and temperature is part of an area of physics known as ...

Content elaboration: In middle school, thermal energy is introduced as the energy of movement of the particles that make up matter. Processes of heat transfer, including conduction, convection and radiation, were studied. In other sections of this course, the role of thermal energy during heating, cooling and phase changes is explored conceptually and graphically. In this course, rates of thermal energy transfer and thermal equilibrium are introduced. Thermal conductivity depends on the rate at which thermal energy is transferred from one end of a material to another. Thermal conductors have a high rate of thermal energy transfer and thermal insulators have a slow rate of thermal energy transfer. The rate at which thermal radiation is absorbed or emitted by a system depends on its temperature, color, texture and exposed surface area. All other things being equal, in a given amount of time, black rough surfaces absorb more thermal energy than smooth white surfaces. An object or system is continuously absorbing and emitting thermal radiation. If the object or system absorbs more thermal energy than it emits and there is no change in phase, the temperature increases. If the object or system emits more thermal energy than is absorbed and there is no change in phase, the temperature decreases. For an object or system in thermal equilibrium, the amount of thermal energy absorbed is equal to the amount of thermal energy emitted; therefore, the temperature remains constant. [cite: 271, 272] In Chemistry, changes in thermal energy will be quantified for substances that change their temperature.

Thermal energy

Electrical Current

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Energy Transfer in Chemical Reactions

Chemical reactions require sufficient energy to cause the matter to collide with enough precision and force that old chemical bonds can be broken and new ...

Resistance

When a current moves through any conductor, the conductor causes some level of difficulty for the current to flow. The measure of that difficulty is known ...

The movement of electrons in a conductor requires some form of energy or work, usually provided by an external force, like a battery. This force is called ...

Ohm's Law

Many materials exhibit a simple relationship between the values of current, voltage, and resistance, known as Ohm&#8217;s law. The current that flows ...

• Movement of electrons 
• Current 
• Electric potential (voltage) 
• Resistors and transfer of energy

Content elaboration: In earlier grades, concepts of electrical conductors and insulators were introduced. A complete loop is needed for an electrical circuit that may be in parallel or in series. In this course, current, voltage and resistance are introduced conceptually to explain what was observed in middle school. The differences between electrical conductors and insulators can be explained by how freely the electrons flow throughout the material due to how firmly electrons are held by the nucleus. By convention, electric current is the rate at which positive charge flows in a circuit. In reality, it is the negatively charged electrons that are actually moving. Current is measured in amperes (A). An ampere is equal to one coulomb of charge per second $(C/s)$. In an electric circuit, the power source supplies the electrons already in the circuit with electric potential energy by doing work to separate opposite charges. For a battery, the energy is provided by a chemical reaction that separates charges on the positive and negative sides of the battery. This separation of charge is what causes the electrons to flow in the circuit. These electrons then transfer energy to other objects and transform electrical energy into other forms (e.g., light, sound, heat) in the resistors. Current continues to flow even after the electrons transfer their energy. Resistors oppose the rate of charge flow in the circuit. The potential difference or voltage across an energy source is a measure of potential energy in joules supplied to each coulomb of charge. The volt (V) is the unit of potential difference and is equal to one joule of energy per coulomb of charge $(J/C)$. Potential difference across the circuit is a property of the energy source and does not depend upon the devices in the circuit. These concepts can be used to explain why current will increase as the potential difference increases and as the resistance decreases. Experiments, investigations and testing (3-D or virtual) are used to construct a variety of circuits and to measure and compare the potential difference (voltage) and current. Circuits are dealt with conceptually in this course. Calculations are reserved for Physics.

Voltage in Electric Circuits

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