Name: how viruses infect cells and multiply
Uploaded: 2019-03-11T09:21:23.000Z
Duration: 50 s
Channel: JoVE

K12 Standards

Louisiana Student Standards for Science

High School

Life Sciences

from-molecules-to-organisms-structures-and-processes

From Molecules To Organisms: Structures And Processes

HS-LS1-8

What are Viruses?

A virus is a structure that carries its own genomic material in the form of RNA or DNA to invade and replicate inside a host cell. After a virus binds to surface receptors on the host cell, it enters and rapidly disassembles, un-coding its genetic material. In the case of DNA viruses, the viral DNA directs the host cells replication proteins to synthesize new copies of the viral genome which are then transcribed and translated into viral proteins.

Finally, the host reassembles these viral components into progeny, allowing a single virus particle to produce 1000s more, often leading to death of the host cell.

what are viruses?

<h4>Overview</h4>

A virus is a microscopic infectious particle that consists of an RNA or DNA genome enclosed in a protein shell. It is not able to reproduce on its own: it can only make more viruses by entering a cell and using its cellular machinery. When a virus infects a host cell, it removes its protein coat and directs the host&rsquo;s machinery to transcribe and translate its genetic material. The hijacked cell assembles the replicated components into thousands of viral progeny, which can rupture and kill the host cell. The new viruses then go on to infect more host cells.

<h4>Why Study Viruses?</h4>

Viruses can infect different types of cells: bacteria, plants, and animals. Viruses that target bacteria, called bacteriophages (or phages), are very abundant. Current research focuses on phage therapy to treat multidrug-resistant bacterial infections in humans. Viruses that infect cultivated plants are also highly studied since epidemics lead to huge crop and economic losses.

Viruses were first discovered in the 19th century when an economically-important crop, the tobacco plant, was plagued by a mysterious disease&mdash;later identified as Tobacco mosaic virus. Animal viruses are of great importance both in veterinary research and in medical research. Moreover, viruses underlie many human diseases, ranging from the common cold, chickenpox, and herpes, to more dangerous infections like yellow fever, hepatitis, and smallpox.

<h4>The Structure of a Virus</h4>

Viruses come in a variety of shapes that are specialized in attacking their target cell. The two major components of all viruses are the viral genome and its protective protein coat, known as the capsid. The viral genome is made up of single or double-stranded RNA or DNA, and it encodes the proteins that make up the capsid. Together, the viral genome and the capsid are known as the nucleocapsid.

A unique feature of many eukaryotic viruses is the presence of a phospholipid membrane, known as the envelope that surrounds the capsid. This envelope typically originates from the membranes of previously infected host cells, but can also include viral proteins (called envelope proteins) attached to it. Finally, some animal viruses have a cluster of virus-encoded proteins, the viral tegument, in the space between the envelope and capsid.

<h4>Viral Infection</h4>

The viral life cycle can be broken into the following five steps: attachment, entry, replication, assembly, and release. The proteins on the surface of the virus help it recognize specific host cells. Some viruses use these surface proteins to bind host cell receptors and initiate internalization by endocytosis, while envelope-coated viruses can directly fuse with the host cell membrane.

Some bacteriophages do not enter the cell; they inject their genome (and viral enzymes) into the host cell. Once inside the cell, the virus is uncoated and directs the machinery of the host cell to transcribe and translate its genome. The host cell packages the new copies of the viral genome into viral particles to make progeny. The progeny viruses may be stored in the host cell before release or continually extruded from the cell by budding off from the cell membrane. The viral infection cycle is classified as lytic or lysogenic. In the lytic cycle, the new viruses burst out of the host cell thus killing it. In the lysogenic cycle, the viral DNA is incorporated into the host genome where it lays dormant and is copied each time the host cell replicates.

Overview

A virus is a microscopic infectious particle that consists of an RNA or DNA genome enclosed in a protein shell. It is not able to reproduce on ...

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Viruses

KEY TERMS AND CONCEPTS

how viruses infect cells and multiply

Viruses infect cells and make new copies by using a host cell’s own machinery. A virus is a tiny infectious particle with an RNA or DNA genome inside a protective protein coat. It cannot reproduce on its own, so it must enter a cell to make more viruses.

After infection, the virus sheds its protein coat and uses the host cell to transcribe and translate its genetic material. The cell then assembles many new viral particles. In many cases, these new viruses rupture the host cell and kill it. The released viruses can then infect other cells.

Viruses can attack bacteria, plants, and animals. Viruses that infect bacteria are called bacteriophages, or phages, and they are very abundant. Scientists also study phages as a possible therapy for multidrug-resistant bacterial infections in humans. Plant viruses matter because outbreaks can cause major crop and economic losses.

Animal viruses are important in both veterinary research and medical research. Viruses were first discovered in the 19th century during studies of tobacco plants with a mysterious disease. That disease was later identified as Tobacco mosaic virus. Viruses are also linked to many human illnesses, including the common cold, chickenpox, herpes, yellow fever, hepatitis, and smallpox.

Viruses vary in shape, but they share two main parts: the viral genome and the capsid. The genome can be single-stranded or double-stranded RNA or DNA, and it carries the instructions for making capsid proteins. The genome and capsid together form the nucleocapsid. Many eukaryotic viruses also have an envelope, which is a phospholipid membrane often taken from a host cell. Some animal viruses also contain a tegument, a layer of viral proteins between the envelope and the capsid.

A viral infection usually follows five stages: attachment, entry, replication, assembly, and release. Viral surface proteins help the virus recognize the right host cell. Some viruses bind to host receptors and enter by endocytosis, while enveloped viruses can fuse with the host cell membrane. Some bacteriophages do not enter the cell at all. They inject their genome and viral enzymes into the host cell instead.

Once inside, the virus is uncoated and directs the host cell to copy and read its genetic material. The host cell packages the new genomes into viral particles to form progeny viruses. These progeny may stay in the cell for a time or leave by budding from the cell membrane. Viral infection can be lytic or lysogenic. In the lytic cycle, new viruses burst out and kill the host cell. In the lysogenic cycle, viral DNA becomes part of the host genome, stays dormant, and is copied when the host cell divides.

How Viruses Infect Cells and Multiply

Viruses infect cells and make new copies by using a host cell’s own machinery. A virus is a tiny infectious particle with an RNA or DNA genome inside a protective protein coat. It cannot reproduce on its own, so it must enter a cell to make more viruses. After infection, the virus sheds its protein coat and uses the host cell to transcribe and translate its genetic material. The cell then assembles many new viral particles. In many cases, these new viruses rupture the host cell and kill it.

viral structure

How Virus Shapes Help Infection

Viruses have specific structures that help them infect host cells and trigger immune responses. Each virus has a core that contains either a DNA-based or RNA-based genome. That core is surrounded by a protective protein coat called the capsid. The capsid is made of smaller subunits called capsomeres. The capsid and the genome-containing core together are called the nucleocapsid. Viruses are often grouped by capsid design. Most viruses have either icosahedral or helical capsids, but some have...

lytic cycle of bacteriophages

How Phages Infect and Burst Bacteria

Bacteriophages, or phages, are viruses that infect bacteria. They have a distinctive head-tail shape. In the lytic cycle, a phage first attaches to the outside of a bacterial cell. Tail proteins bind to specific receptor proteins on the bacterium’s surface. After attachment, the phage tail injects its DNA genome into the bacterial cytoplasm. The phage then uses the bacterium’s cellular machinery to make proteins needed for replication and dispersal. When phage replication is complete, some of...

lysogenic cycle of bacteriophages

Prophage Integration in Bacteria

The lysogenic cycle shows how bacteriophages can infect bacteria without killing the host right away. In this cycle, the phage genome joins the bacterial genome. The integrated phage DNA is called a prophage, and the bacterium copies it each time it replicates. Some prophages can switch back into the lytic cycle. This change can happen after DNA damage or even without an obvious outside trigger. When the prophage is induced, the phage begins making new virus particles again. Prophages can...

retrovirus life cycles

How Retroviruses Replicate in Host Cells

Retroviruses replicate by copying their RNA genome into DNA inside a host cell. After entry, the viral enzyme reverse transcriptase makes a double-stranded DNA copy from the single-stranded RNA genome. The viral DNA is then carried into the nucleus and inserted into the host genome by integrase. Once integrated, the retroviral DNA is transcribed whenever the host genome is transcribed. This produces new viral RNA that can be copied and used again. The new RNA moves into the cytoplasm, where it...

viral recombination

How Viruses Swap Genes and Spread

Viral gene swapping can happen when more than one virus infects the same cell. After the viruses break open and expose their genomes for replication, matching regions can pair up and exchange sequences. This process is called recombination. Viruses with segmented genomes can also swap whole segments, which is called reassortment. These changes can help create new diseases. Some diseases can infect more than one species. Pigs can be infected by some human and bird viruses, along with the...

viral mutations

How Virus Mutations Drive Outbreaks

Virus mutations can change how quickly a virus evolves and spreads. A mutation is a change in the sequence of bases in DNA or RNA. Some mutations happen when the genome is copied. They are caused by errors made by polymerase enzymes, which replicate DNA or RNA. RNA viruses often change faster than DNA viruses because RNA polymerase does not proofread its work. That means RNA-based genomes, such as HIV, can gather mutations more quickly. Mutation and recombination give viruses the raw material...

key terms and concepts

Learn how viruses enter host cells, use cellular machinery to replicate, and spread through lytic and lysogenic cycles in plants, animals, and bacteria.

How Viruses Infect Cells and Multiply | JoVE K12

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HS-LS1-2

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HS-LS1-4

How Viruses Infect Cells and Multiply

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