Name: nervous system parts and control
Uploaded: 2019-03-11T09:21:26.000Z
Duration: 1 min 25 s
Channel: JoVE

K12 Standards

Next Generation Science Standards

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Life Science

from-molecules-to-organisms-structures-and-processes

From Molecules to Organisms: Structures and Processes

HS-LS1-2

What is a Nervous System?

The nervous system allows a person to detect the outside world and make appropriate responses to it. Additionally, it controls functions ranging from breathing to advanced reasoning.

This system is divided into two parts, the central nervous system or CNS which contains the brain and spinal cord, and the peripheral nervous system, the PNS, which includes the nerves that travel between the CNS and the rest of the body.

The brain is subdivided into areas that have different functions such as processing visual information or coordinating movements, but it is also highly interconnected, allowing for integration of information.

Like the rest of the nervous system, the brain is composed of neurons, cells that generate and transmit neural signals, and glia, cells that support neural functioning.

Below the brain lies the spinal cord, CNS tissue that extends down the vertebral canal. It facilitates signaling between the brain and PNS and also controls some basic functions such as reflexes.

In the PNS, nerves, bundles of neuronal axons, transmit instructions out to skeletal muscles to control movement and to internal organs to regulate autonomic functions such as digestion. Nerves also carry sensory information from receptor cells such as those in the skin that detect touch to the CNS for analysis.

what is a nervous system?

<h4>Overview</h4>

The nervous system is the collection of specialized cells responsible for maintaining an organism&rsquo;s internal environment and coordinating the interaction of an organism with the external world&mdash;from the control of essential functions such as heart rate and breathing to the movement needed to escape danger.

<h4>Parts of the Nervous System</h4>

The vertebrate nervous system is divided into two major parts: the central nervous system (CNS) and the peripheral nervous system (PNS). The CNS includes the brain, spinal cord, and retina&mdash;the sensory tissue of the visual system. The PNS contains the sensory receptor cells for all of the other sensory systems&mdash;such as the touch receptors in the skin&mdash;as well as the nerves that carry information between the CNS and the rest of the body. Additionally, part of both the CNS and PNS contribute to the autonomic nervous system (also known as the visceral motor system). The autonomic nervous system controls smooth muscles, cardiac muscles, and glands that govern involuntary actions, such as digestion.

The vertebrate brain is primarily divided into the cerebrum, cerebellum, and brainstem. The cerebrum is the largest, most anterior part of the brain that is divided into left and right hemispheres. Each hemisphere is further divided into four lobes: frontal, parietal, occipital, and temporal. The outermost layer of the cerebrum is called the cortex which is involved in processing complex sensory information and most cognitive functions. Deeper inside the brain lie other critical components, including the hippocampus, hypothalamus, thalamus, and basal ganglia. The cerebellum (the &ldquo;little brain&rdquo;) is located posterior and below the cerebrum and is responsible for coordinating muscle movement. The brainstem connects the brain to the spinal cord and has important centers for vital functions such as breathing and swallowing.

The spinal cord lies below the brain and is continuous with the brainstem. It contains neuronal cell bodies and bundles of axons that connect the brain and different parts of the body. Besides being a critical conduit of information, the spinal cord can carry out some functions without input from the brain, such as locomotion and other reflexes. The nerves of the PNS carry motor commands from the CNS out to muscles, and sensory information from receptor cells to the CNS for interpretation. Besides the movement of skeletal muscles, nerves regulate the activity of internal organs such as the lungs and intestines through the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions of the autonomic nervous system.

<h4>Cells of the Nervous System</h4>

Two main cell types make up the nervous system: neurons and glial cells. Neurons are the heavy-hitters in the CNS&mdash;they are responsible for communicating with each other and carrying information back and forth from the nervous system to the rest of the body. It is estimated that the human brain contains around 100 billion neurons and a staggering 100 trillion connections between them. They come in many different morphologies and perform a wide range of functions. Neurons use an array of neurochemicals and ions to communicate at junctions called synapses.

The other main type of cells of the nervous system is part of a group called glial cells. They include a diverse group of cells that contribute to the function of neurons and roughly equal the number of neurons in the brain. The main types of glial cells include astrocytes, microglia, oligodendrocytes, and ependymal cells in the CNS; Schwann cells and satellite cells are found in the PNS.

<h4>Mental Health Is a Global Concern</h4>

The nervous system governs virtually every experience we have, and its disruption due to trauma, disease, genetics, or exposure to harmful chemicals can have severe impacts on health and quality of life. The mental health conditions that stem from such effects are remarkably common across the world. Increasing our understanding of neurological and neurodevelopmental disorders continues to provide potential treatments and therapeutics to many who suffer from mental health conditions. The World Health Organization (W.H.O.) and the National Institutes of Mental Health (N.I.M.H) in the U.S., among other organizations, provide valuable resources to both study these conditions and track their impact on society.

Overview

The nervous system is the collection of specialized cells responsible for maintaining an organism&rsquo;s internal environment and coordinating ...

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KEY TERMS AND CONCEPTS

nervous system parts and control

The nervous system is a network of specialized cells that keeps the body working and helps it respond to the world around it. It controls essential functions such as heart rate and breathing. It also supports movement that helps an organism escape danger.

In vertebrates, the nervous system has two major parts: the central nervous system, or CNS, and the peripheral nervous system, or PNS. The CNS includes the brain, spinal cord, and retina, which is the sensory tissue of the visual system. The PNS includes sensory receptor cells for the other sensory systems, such as touch receptors in the skin, and the nerves that carry information between the CNS and the rest of the body.

Part of both the CNS and PNS also contributes to the autonomic nervous system, also called the visceral motor system. This system controls smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, and glands. It helps govern involuntary actions such as digestion.

The vertebrate brain is divided into the cerebrum, cerebellum, and brainstem. The cerebrum is the largest and most anterior part of the brain. It has left and right hemispheres, and each hemisphere is divided into the frontal, parietal, occipital, and temporal lobes. The outer layer of the cerebrum is the cortex, which processes complex sensory information and many cognitive functions. Deeper brain regions include the hippocampus, hypothalamus, thalamus, and basal ganglia.

The cerebellum, sometimes called the little brain, sits behind and below the cerebrum. It helps coordinate muscle movement. The brainstem connects the brain to the spinal cord and contains important centers for vital functions such as breathing and swallowing. The spinal cord lies below the brain and continues from the brainstem. It contains neuronal cell bodies and axon bundles that connect the brain with the body. It can also carry out some functions without input from the brain, including locomotion and other reflexes.

Nerves in the PNS carry motor commands from the CNS to muscles and sensory information from receptor cells back to the CNS for interpretation. They also help regulate internal organs such as the lungs and intestines through the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions of the autonomic nervous system.

Two main cell types make up the nervous system: neurons and glial cells. Neurons carry information between nervous system regions and between the nervous system and the rest of the body. The human brain is estimated to contain about 100 billion neurons and about 100 trillion connections between them. Neurons come in many shapes and use neurochemicals and ions to communicate at synapses, which are junctions between cells.

Glial cells are the other major cell type. They support neuron function and are about as numerous as neurons in the brain. Major glial cells in the CNS include astrocytes, microglia, oligodendrocytes, and ependymal cells. In the PNS, Schwann cells and satellite cells perform related support roles.

Because the nervous system affects nearly every experience, damage from trauma, disease, genetics, or harmful chemicals can strongly affect health and quality of life. Problems in this system are linked to many mental health conditions around the world. Research on neurological and neurodevelopmental disorders continues to guide possible treatments and therapies. Organizations such as the World Health Organization and the National Institute of Mental Health help study these conditions and track their impact on society.

Nervous System Parts and Control

The nervous system is a network of specialized cells that keeps the body working and helps it respond to the world around it. It controls essential functions such as heart rate and breathing. It also supports movement that helps an organism escape danger. In vertebrates, the nervous system has two major parts: the central nervous system, or CNS, and the peripheral nervous system, or PNS. The CNS includes the brain, spinal cord, and retina, which is the sensory tissue of the visual system. The...

the parasympathetic nervous system

Rest and Digest: Parasympathetic Control

The parasympathetic nervous system helps the body stay calm and return to a rested state. It is one of the two major divisions of the autonomic nervous system, which controls many unconscious functions such as heart rate and digestion. Its neurons are found in the brain and the peripheral nervous system, and they send axons to muscles, organs, and glands. This system is often called the “rest and digest” system because it supports body processes that restore homeostasis. It is most active...

the sympathetic nervous system

Sympathetic Stress Response and Body Changes

The sympathetic nervous system helps the body respond to stress and danger. It is one of the two main divisions of the autonomic nervous system. When it turns on, it prepares the body for action and puts lower-priority functions, such as digestion, on hold. This response is often called the fight-or-flight system. A surprise exam can trigger it, and students may notice a tight stomach, a dry mouth, and a fast heartbeat. In a real threat, the system shifts blood away from the digestive system...

the blood-brain barrier

How the Blood-Brain Barrier Works

The blood-brain barrier is a specialized system of blood vessels that helps control what enters the brain. It delivers nutrients from the blood while tightly regulating ions, molecules, pathogens, and other substances. This semipermeable barrier protects the brain and also makes it harder to deliver some therapies. The blood-brain barrier includes several cellular parts, especially endothelial cells and astrocytes. These cells share a common basement membrane and regulate movement between the...

neuron structure

How Neurons Send Signals

Neurons send signals through a clear set of structures that let them receive, process, and pass on information. They are the main cells of the nervous system and use electrochemical signals to communicate. Neurons also talk to other cells through neurotransmitters at junctions called synapses. Most neurons share three main parts: a cell body, also called the soma, dendrites, and an axon. The soma holds the nucleus and other organelles needed for cell function. Dendrites usually receive...

glial cells

Glial Cells and Nervous System Support

Glial cells support the nervous system and work alongside neurons. They are one of the two main cell types in the nervous system. Unlike neurons, glia do not send electrical signals, but they help with nearly every other part of nervous system function. In humans, glial cells are about as numerous as neurons in the brain. In the central nervous system, glia include astrocytes, oligodendrocytes, microglia, and ependymal cells. Astrocytes are the most common glial cells. They form organized,...

action potentials

How Nerve Signals Travel in Axons

Neurons send signals through action potentials, the rapid electrical changes that move along the axon. These signals lead to neurotransmitter release at axon terminals, which passes information through the nervous system. An action potential is an all-or-none change in membrane potential, the voltage across a cell membrane. A neuron usually has a resting membrane potential of about -70 millivolts. When it receives signals from neurotransmitters or sensory input, the membrane can become more...

the resting membrane potential

How Neurons Keep a Negative Resting Charge

Neurons keep a negative resting charge across their membrane. This electrical difference, called the membrane potential, comes from how ions move and how the membrane lets them pass. In a resting neuron, the inside is typically around -70 millivolts and is more negative than the outside, so the cell is polarized. Two main factors create this resting state. First, the membrane is selectively permeable, which means most ions and molecules cannot cross the lipid bilayer without help from ion...

long-term potentiation

Synaptic Strengthening in Learning and Memory

Long-term potentiation, or LTP, is a form of synaptic strengthening in the brain. It changes the strength of chemical synapses over time between pre- and postsynaptic neurons. LTP works against long-term depression, or LTD, which weakens synapses. Together, LTP and LTD are major mechanisms behind learning and memory. LTP can happen when a presynaptic neuron fires again and again and keeps stimulating a postsynaptic neuron. This is called Hebbian LTP, based on Donald Hebb’s idea that neurons...

long-term depression

Synaptic Pruning in Long-term Depression

Long-term depression, or LTD, is a form of synaptic plasticity that weakens chemical synapses over time. It acts between presynaptic and postsynaptic neurons. LTD works in opposition to long-term potentiation, or LTP, which strengthens synapses. Together, LTD and LTP are two of the main mechanisms behind learning and memory. LTD helps the brain avoid staying locked in a fully strengthened state. If synapses were always maximally strengthened, the brain would become less efficient and it would...

the synapse

How Neurons Signal at Synapses

Neurons communicate through synapses, the points where two neurons meet to pass on signals. At a synapse, the sending neuron is the presynaptic cell, and the receiving neuron is the postsynaptic cell. Most neurons can serve in both roles because they send and receive information. Electrical synapses move signals directly between cells. The presynaptic and postsynaptic cells are linked by gap junctions, which are proteins that physically connect them. This type of synapse can pass electrical...

key terms and concepts

Explore how the nervous system is organized, how neurons and glial cells work, and how the brain, spinal cord, and nerves control body functions.

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Structure and Function

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HS-LS1-3

Nervous System Parts and Control

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