Name: stepwise ionization of polyprotic acids
Uploaded: 2020-09-24T15:06:51.000Z
Duration: 3 min 38 s
Channel: JoVE

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Polyprotic Acids

Hidroflorik asit gibi monoprotik asitler, iyonlaşabilir tek bir proton içerir. Buna karşılık, poliprotik asitler iki veya daha fazla iyonlaşabilir proton içerir. Örneğin, sülfürik asit iki iyonlaşabilir protona sahiptir ve fosforik asit üç protona sahiptir.Bir poliprotik asit, protonlarının her birini sırayla kaybeder ve her reaksiyonun kendi Ka'sı vardır. Bir protonu nötr bir molekülden çıkarmak, negatif yüklü bir molekülden daha kolaydır çünkü negatif yük, proton ile anyon arasındaki bağın gücünü artırır. Bu nedenle, fosforik asit için, ilk protonun çıkarılması için gerekli Ka değeri, yani Ka1, ikinci protondan yani Ka2'den yüksek, Ka2 ise Ka3'ten daha yüksektir.Bir poliprotik asidin pH'ı, Ka1, sonraki Ka'larından en az bin kat daha büyükse, yalnızca ilk reaksiyon kullanılarak tahmin edilebilir. Örneğin, 0, 050 molar askorbik asit çözeltisinin pH'ı, Ka1 ve bir ICE tablosu kullanılarak belirlenebilir. Suda çözündüğünde askorbik asit, hidronyum ve askorbat iyonlarına ayrışır.Bu reaksiyon için Ka1, 8×10⁻⁵'dir ve askorbik asit konsantrasyonuna bölünen hidronyum konsantrasyonu çarpı askorbat monoanyon konsantrasyonuna eşittir. Bu reaksiyon için başlangıç ve denge konsantrasyonları ile bir ICE tablosu hazırlanabilir. Küçük x değeri nedeniyle, 0, 050 eksi x yaklaşık 0, 050'ye eşittir.Bu değerleri Ka1 ifadesine yerleştirerek, x için değer 0, 0020 molara eşittir ve bu, askorbik asidin başlangıç konsantrasyonunun sadece yüzde 4'üdür. Böylece yaklaşım geçerlidir. Çözeltinin pH'ı 2, 70'e eşittir.Reaksiyonun ikinci aşamasında oluşan askorbat dianyon konsantrasyonu da Ka2 ve bir ICE tablosu kullanılarak hesaplanabilir. Ka2, 1, 6×10⁻¹²'ye eşittir ve hidronyum konsantrasyonu çarpı askorbat dianyon konsantrasyonunun askorbat monoanyon konsantrasyonuna bölümü olarak ifade edilebilir. Bu reaksiyon için, ICE tablosu, ilk reaksiyondan gelen 0, 002 molar olan askorbat monoanyon ve hidronyumun başlangıç konsantrasyonu ile doldurulur.X'in küçük değeri nedeniyle askorbat monoanyon ve hidronyumun denge konsantrasyonlarından çıkarılabilir. Ka2 ifadesinde bu değerleri değiştirdikten ve çözdükten sonra, x 1, 6×10⁻¹² molar olur. X, 0, 002 moların yüzd 5'inden daha az olduğundan, yaklaşım geçerlidir.Askorbik asit ayrışmasının ikinci aşaması sırasında oluşan hidronyum iyonlarının konsantrasyonu ihmal edilebilir olduğundan, birinci iyonlaşabilir proton çözeltinin pH'ını belirler.

poliprotik asitler

Asitler, bir reaksiyonda vazgeçebilecekleri molekül başına proton sayısına göre sınıflandırılır. Her molekülde bir iyonlaşabilir hidrojen atomu içeren HCl, HNO3 ve HCN gibi asitlere monoprotik asitler denir. Su ile reaksiyonları:
 <table style=""margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"">
 <tbody>
 <tr>
 <td style=""color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;"">Monoprotik asitler: Su ile reaksiyonlar</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td style=""color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;"">HCl (aq) + H2O (l) ⟶ H3O+ (aq) + Cl−(aq)</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td style=""color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;"">HNO3 (aq) + H2O (l) ⟶ H3O+ (aq) + NO3−(aq)</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td style=""color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;"">HCN (aq) + H2O (l) ⇌ H3O+ (aq) + CN− (aq)</td>
 </tr>
 </tbody>
 </table>
 
 Dört hidrojen atomu içermesine rağmen, asetik asit, CH3CO2H’de monoprotiktir çünkü yalnızca karboksil grubundan (COOH) gelen hidrojen atomu bazlarla reaksiyona girer:
 
 <img alt=""Image1"" src=""/files/ftp_upload/11405/11405_Figure 1.svg"" style=""height: 125px;"" />
 
 Benzer şekilde, monoprotik bazlar, tek bir protonu kabul edecek bazlardır.
 
 Diprotik asitler molekül başına iki iyonlaşabilir hidrojen atomu içerir; bu tür asitlerin iyonlaşması iki aşamada gerçekleşir. İlk iyonizasyon her zaman ikinci iyonizasyondan daha büyük ölçüde gerçekleşir. Örneğin, güçlü bir asit olan sülfürik asit şu şekilde iyonize olur:
 <table style=""margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"">
 <tbody>
 <tr>
 <td style=""color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;""></td>
 <td colspan=""2"" style=""color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;"">Diprotik asit: Sülfürik asit (H2SO4)</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td style=""color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;"">1.iyonlaşma</td>
 <td style=""color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;"">H2SO4(aq) + H2O (l) ⇌ H3O+ (aq) + HSO4− (aq)</td>
 <td style=""color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;"">Ka1 = 102;’den fazla tam çözünme</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td style=""color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;"">2. iyonlaşma</td>
 <td style=""color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;"">HSO4− (aq) + H2O (l) ⇌ H3O+ (aq) + SO42− (aq)</td>
 <td style=""color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;"">Ka2 = 1,2 × 10−2</td>
 </tr>
 </tbody>
 </table>
 
 Bu aşamalı iyonlaşma süreci tüm poliprotik asitler için gerçekleşir. Karbonik asit, H2CO3, zayıf bir diprotik asit örneğidir. Karbonik asidin ilk iyonizasyonu, küçük miktarlarda hidronyum iyonları ve bikarbonat iyonları verir.
 
 İlk iyonlaşma: H2CO3 (aq) + H2O (l) ⇌ H3O+(aq) + HCO3− (aq)
 
 <img alt=""Eq1"" src=""/files/ftp_upload/11405/11405_Equation_1.png"" style=""height: 90px;"" />
 
 Bikarbonat iyonu ayrıca asit olarak da davranabilir. İyonlaşır ve daha da küçük miktarlarda hidronyum iyonları ve karbonat iyonları oluşturur.
 
 İkinci iyonlaşma: HCO3− (aq) + H2O (l) ⇌ H3O+(aq) + CO32− (aq)
 
 <img alt=""Eq2"" src=""/files/ftp_upload/11405/11405_Equation_2.png"" style=""height: 90px;"" />
 
 KH2CO3, KHCO3−'dan 104 kat daha büyüktür, bu nedenle H2CO3, çözeltideki baskın hidronyum iyon üreticisidir. Bu, H2CO3'ün iyonlaşmasıyla oluşan HCO3−'ün çok azının, hidronyum iyonları (ve karbonat iyonları) verecek şekilde iyonize olduğu ve H3O+ ve HCO3− konsantrasyonlarının, saf sulu H2CO3 çözeltisinde pratik olarak eşit olduğu anlamına gelir.
 
 Zayıf bir diprotik asidin birinci iyonizasyon sabiti ikinciden en az 20 faktör kadar büyükse, sonraki iyonizasyondan kaynaklanan türlerin konsantrasyonlarını hesaplamadan önce birinci iyonlaşmayı ayrı olarak işlemek ve bundan kaynaklanan konsantrasyonları hesaplamak uygundur. Bu yaklaşım, aşağıdaki örnek uygulamada gösterilmektedir.
 
 Diprotik Asidin İyonlaşması
 
 “Karbonatlı su”, yeterli miktarda çözünmüş karbondioksit içerir. Çözelti asidiktir çünkü CO2 suyla reaksiyona girerek karbonik asit H2CO3 oluşturur. Başlangıcı [H2CO3] = 0.033 olan doymuş bir CO2 çözeltisindeki [H3O+], [HCO3−] ve [CO32−] nedir?
 
 <img alt=""Eq3"" src=""/files/ftp_upload/11405/11405_Equation_3.png"" style=""height: 90px;"" />
 
 İyonizasyon sabitlerinin gösterdiği gibi, H2CO3, HCO3−'den çok daha güçlü bir asittir, bu nedenle aşamalı iyonlaşma reaksiyonları ayrı ayrı işlenebilir. Sağlanan bilgiler kullanılarak bu ilk iyonizasyon adımı için bir ICE tablosu hazırlanır:
 <table style=""margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"">
 <tbody>
 <tr>
 <td style=""color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;""></td>
 <td style=""color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;"">H2CO3 (aq) </td>
 <td style=""color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;"">H3O+ (aq)</td>
 <td style=""color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;"">HCO3− (aq)</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td style=""color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;"">Başlangıç Konsantrasyonu (M)</td>
 <td style=""color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;"">0,033</td>
 <td style=""color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;"">~0</td>
 <td style=""color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;"">0</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td style=""color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;"">Değişim (M)</td>
 <td style=""color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;"">−x</td>
 <td style=""color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;"">+x</td>
 <td style=""color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;"">+x</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td style=""color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;"">Denge Konsantrasyonu (M)</td>
 <td style=""color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;"">0,033 − x</td>
 <td style=""color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;"">x</td>
 <td style=""color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;"">x</td>
 </tr>
 </tbody>
 </table>
 
 Denge konsantrasyonlarının denge denklemine yerleştirilmesi şunu verir
 
 <img alt=""Eq4"" src=""/files/ftp_upload/11405/11405_Equation_4.png"" style=""height: 90px;"" />
 
 x << 0,033 varsayılması ve basitleştirilmiş denklemin çözülmesi şunu verir
 
 <img alt=""Eq5"" src=""/files/ftp_upload/11405/11405_Equation_5.png"" style=""height: 50px;"" />
 
 ICE tablosu, x’i bikarbonat iyon molaritesine ve hidronyum iyon molaritesine eşit olacak şekilde tanımlar:
 
 <img alt=""Eq6"" src=""/files/ftp_upload/11405/11405_Equation_6.png"" style=""height: 90px;"" />
 
 Yukarıda hesaplanan bikarbonat iyon konsantrasyonunu kullanarak, ikinci iyonizasyon benzer bir denge hesaplamasına tabi tutulur: HCO3− (aq) + H2O (l) ⇌ H3O+ (aq) + CO32− (aq)
 
 <img alt=""Eq7"" src=""/files/ftp_upload/11405/11405_Equation_7.png"" style=""height: 180px;"" />
 
 Özetlemek için: Dengede [H2CO3] = 0,033 M; [H3O+] = 1,2 × 10−4; [HCO3−] = 1,2 × 10−4 M; ve [CO32−] = 4,7 × 10−11 M.
 
 Triprotik bir asit, üç iyonlaştırılabilir H atomuna sahip bir asittir. Fosforik asit bir örnektir:
 <table style=""margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"">
 <tbody>
 <tr>
 <td style=""color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;""></td>
 <td colspan=""2"" style=""color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;"">Triprotik asit: Fosforik asit (H3PO4)</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td style=""color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;"">1. iyonlaşma</td>
 <td style=""color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;"">H3PO4 (aq) + H2O (l) ⇌ H3O+ (aq) + H2PO4− (aq) </td>
 <td style=""color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;"">Ka1 = 7,5 × 10−3</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td style=""color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;"">2. iyonlaşma</td>
 <td style=""color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;"">H2PO4− (aq) + H2O (l) ⇌ H3O+(aq) + HPO42− (aq)</td>
 <td style=""color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;"">Ka2 = 6,2 × 10−8</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td style=""color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;"">3. iyonlaşma</td>
 <td style=""color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;"">HPO42− (aq) + H2O (l) ⇌ H3O+ (aq) + PO43− (aq)</td>
 <td style=""color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;"">Ka3 = 4,2 × 10−13</td>
 </tr>
 </tbody>
 </table>
 
 Diprotik asit örneklerine gelince, her bir ardışık iyonizasyon reaksiyonu öncekinden daha az kapsamlı olup, aşamalı asit iyonizasyon sabitleri için azalan değerlerde yansıtılmaktadır. Bu, poliprotik asitlerin genel bir özelliğidir ve ardışık iyonlaşma sabitleri genellikle yaklaşık 105 ila 106 arasında bir faktör kadar farklılık gösterir.
 
 Bu üç ayrışma reaksiyonu grubu, bir H3PO4 çözeltisindeki denge konsantrasyonlarının hesaplamalarını karmaşık hale getiriyor gibi görünebilir. Bununla birlikte, ardışık iyonlaşma sabitleri 105 ila 106 arasında farklılık gösterdiğinden, iyonizasyon reaksiyonlarına eşlik eden konsantrasyondaki küçük değişikliklerde büyük farklılıklar mevcuttur. Bu, yukarıdaki örneklerde gösterildiği gibi matematiği basitleştiren varsayımların ve süreçlerin kullanımına izin verir. Poliprotik bazlar birden fazla hidrojen iyonunu kabul edebilir. Karbonat iyonu diprotik bir baz örneğidir çünkü aşağıda gösterildiği gibi iki protonu kabul edebilir. Poliprotik asitler için olan duruma benzer şekilde, iyonizasyon sabitlerinin iyonizasyon adımıyla azaldığına dikkat edin. Benzer şekilde, poliprotik bazları içeren denge hesaplamaları, poliprotik asitler için olanlarla aynı yaklaşımları izler.
 
 <img alt=""Eq8"" src=""/files/ftp_upload/11405/11405_Equation_8.png"" style=""height: 90px;"" />
 
 Bu metin bu kaynaktan uyarlanmıştır: <a href=""https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-2e/pages/14-5-polyprotic-acids""> Openstax, Chemistry 2e, Section 14.5: Polyprotic Acids</a>.

Poliprotik Asitler

Asitler, bir reaksiyonda vazgeçebilecekleri molekül başına proton sayısına göre sınıflandırılır. Bir tane içeren HCl, HNO3 ve HCN gibi asitler ...

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stepwise ionization of polyprotic acids

Polyprotic acids lose hydrogen ions in steps. The number of ionizable protons in a molecule determines whether an acid is monoprotic, diprotic, or triprotic. This video also shows that polyprotic bases can accept more than one proton.

Monoprotic acids have one ionizable hydrogen atom per molecule. Examples include HCl, HNO3, and HCN. Their reactions with water form hydronium ions and the matching anion. Acetic acid, CH3CO2H, is also monoprotic because only the hydrogen in the carboxyl group reacts with bases. Monoprotic bases accept a single proton.

Diprotic acids have two ionizable hydrogen atoms, so they ionize in two steps. The first ionization is greater than the second. Sulfuric acid is a strong example, with complete first dissociation and a much smaller second dissociation. Carbonic acid, H2CO3, is a weak diprotic acid with the same stepwise pattern. Its first ionization forms hydronium and bicarbonate ions, and its second ionization converts bicarbonate into carbonate in even smaller amounts.

For carbonic acid, the first ionization constant is much larger than the second. In a pure aqueous solution of H2CO3, H3O+ and HCO3− are practically equal, while only a tiny amount of CO3 2− forms. When the first ionization constant is at least 20 times larger than the second, the two steps can be treated separately in equilibrium calculations. The example of saturated CO2 in water uses an ICE table for the first step, then a second equilibrium calculation for bicarbonate.

At equilibrium in that example, [H2CO3] is 0.033 M, [H3O+] is 1.2 × 10−4 M, [HCO3−] is 1.2 × 10−4 M, and [CO3 2−] is 4.7 × 10−11 M. This shows why the first ionization dominates the solution. It also shows how stepwise calculations can simplify polyprotic acid problems.

Triprotic acids have three ionizable hydrogen atoms. Phosphoric acid, H3PO4, is one example. Its three ionization steps produce H2PO4−, then HPO4 2−, and finally PO4 3−. Each successive ionization is less extensive than the one before it. The stepwise acid ionization constants decrease, often by a factor of about 10^5 to 10^6.

That large difference in ionization constants makes equilibrium work easier. Even though a triprotic acid has three dissociation reactions, the small concentration changes can still be handled with simplifying assumptions. Polyprotic bases follow the same idea. The carbonate ion is a diprotic base because it can accept two protons, and its ionization constants also decrease with each step.

Stepwise Ionization of Polyprotic Acids

bronsted-lowry acids and bases

Proton Transfer in Acids and Bases

Acids and bases can be understood through proton transfer. Early scientists described acids by their sour taste, their effect on dyes, and their reaction with limestone, which releases carbon dioxide. Robert Boyle also noted that acid solutions can lose these properties after contact with alkali, or base, solutions. The modern view developed step by step. Humphry Davy showed that hydrogen is the essential part of acids. Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac then described acids as substances that neutralize...

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pH and pOH show how hydronium and hydroxide ions behave in water and other aqueous solutions. These ion concentrations are linked by the ion product of water, K w , so when one goes up, the other goes down. Because ion concentrations can differ by huge amounts, a logarithmic scale is used to describe them. pH is defined from the hydronium ion concentration, [H3O+], and pOH is the matching p-function for hydroxide ion concentration. These two values are also connected through the K w...

relative strengths of conjugate acid-base pairs

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Brønsted-Lowry acid-base chemistry is based on proton transfer. That idea helps show how the strength of an acid is linked to the strength of its conjugate base, and vice versa. Acid and base strength is measured with ionization constants, Ka and Kb, which tell how far an ionization reaction goes. For the conjugate pair HA and A−, the acid ionizes in water and the base reaction can be written for the partner species. When the two reactions are added, they give the autoionization of water. The...

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Strong Acids, Strong Bases, and pH

Strong acids and strong bases change the pH of a solution by dissociating completely in water. A strong acid produces hydronium ions, which are H3O+ ions, and a strong base produces hydroxide ions, OH-. Because the dissociation is complete, the ion concentration can be found from the starting concentration and the molar ratio. For example, 0.20 M hydrobromic acid dissociates fully in water. It produces 0.20 M hydronium ions and 0.20 M bromide ions. A 0.015 M KOH solution also dissociates...

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Weak Acid Equilibrium in Water

Weak acid equilibrium in water explains why many acids only partially react when dissolved. Most weak acid molecules stay in their original form, and only a small amount of hydronium ions forms. Weak acids are common in nature. They help create the tangy taste of citrus fruits, the stinging sensation from insect bites, and the smells linked to body odor. Acetic acid is a familiar weak acid. It is the main ingredient in vinegar. Its equation uses a double arrow to show that the reaction with...

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Weak Base pH and Kb Calculations

Weak base pH and Kb calculations show how partially reacting bases change water chemistry. Weak bases produce hydroxide ions when they dissolve by reacting with water molecules. Because the reaction only happens partly, these compounds are classified as weak bases. Weak bases are common in nature and in technology. Ammonia is one major example. Global production of ammonia is typically well over 100 metric tons each year. It is used as an agricultural fertilizer, a starting material for...

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The pH of acid mixtures depends on the acids present, their dissociation constants, and their starting concentrations. When a solution contains two different acids, the pH can be found by choosing the method that fits their relative strengths. This makes acid mixtures a useful case for applying acid-base rules in chemistry. In a mixture of a strong acid and a weak acid, the strong acid dissociates completely and supplies almost all of the hydronium ions in the solution. The weak acid...

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polyprotic acids

Polyprotic acids lose hydrogen ions in steps. The number of ionizable protons in a molecule determines whether an acid is monoprotic, diprotic, or triprotic. This video also shows that polyprotic bases can accept more than one proton. Monoprotic acids have one ionizable hydrogen atom per molecule. Examples include HCl, HNO3, and HCN. Their reactions with water form hydronium ions and the matching anion. Acetic acid, CH3CO2H, is also monoprotic because only the hydrogen in the carboxyl group...

acid strength and molecular structure

How Bonding Affects Acid Strength

Acid strength depends on bonding, electronegativity, and oxidation number. These factors help explain why some hydrogen compounds act as strong acids, while others behave as weak acids or bases. For binary acids, which are hydrogen compounds with one other nonmetal, acidity increases as the H-A bond gets weaker down a group. That is why the order for group 17 is HF &lt; HCl &lt; HBr &lt; HI, and for group 16 it is H2O &lt; H2S &lt; H2Se &lt; H2Te. Across a period, acid strength increases as...

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Explore how monoprotic, diprotic, and triprotic acids ionize in steps, plus how polyprotic bases accept protons and how to use ICE tables.

Stepwise Ionization of Polyprotic Acids | JoVE K12

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Chemical reactions

Minnesota Academic Standards in Science

1.2.1 9L.4.2.2.1

Texas Essential Knowledge and Skills

High School

CHEM.12

CHEM.12.D

Alabama Course of Study Science

Matter and Its Interactions

9-12.PS.3.6.c

Classifying Matter by State

Chemistry is the study of matter and the changes it undergoes. Matter is anything that has mass and occupies space. Matter is all around us; the air, ...

Classifying Matter by Composition

Matter: Pure Substances and Mixtures
According to its composition, the matter can be classified into two broad categories &mdash; pure substances and ...

Elements: Chemical Symbols and Isotopes

A chemical symbol is an abbreviation used to indicate an element or an atom of an element. For example, the symbol for mercury is Hg. The same symbol is ...

Molecules and Compounds

Atoms and Molecules

Everything in the universe is made up of matter, and matter is composed of a combination of elements. An atom is the smallest unit of ...

Solution Formation

There is no one solvent that can dissolve every type of solute. Some substances that readily dissolve in a certain solvent might be insoluble in a ...

Colloids

Children at play often make suspensions such as mixtures of mud and water, flour and water, or a suspension of solid pigments in water known as tempera ...

Construct an explanation to classify matter as a pure substance or mixture; homogeneous or heterogeneous; element or compound; solution, colloid or suspension.

PS.PSc.1.1

Phase Transitions

Whether solid, liquid, or gas, a substance&#39;s state depends on the order and arrangement of its particles (atoms, molecules, or ions). Particles in the ...

phase-transitions-vaporization-and-condensation

Phase Transitions: Vaporization and Condensation

The physical form of a substance changes on changing its temperature. For example, raising the temperature of a liquid causes the liquid to vaporize ...

Vapor Pressure

When a liquid vaporizes in a closed container, gas molecules cannot escape. As these gas phase molecules move randomly about, they will occasionally ...

Clausius-Clapeyron Equation

The equilibrium between a liquid and its vapor depends on the temperature of the system; a rise in temperature causes a corresponding rise in the vapor ...

Phase Transitions: Melting and Freezing

Heating a crystalline solid increases the average energy of its atoms, molecules, or ions, and the solid gets hotter. At some point, the added energy ...

phase-transitions-sublimation-and-deposition

Phase Transitions: Sublimation and Deposition

Some solids can transition directly into the gaseous state, bypassing the liquid state, via a process known as sublimation. At room temperature and ...

Heating and Cooling Curves

When a substance&#8212;isolated from its environment&#8212;is subjected to heat changes, corresponding changes in temperature and phase of the substance ...

Phase Diagrams

A phase diagram combines plots of pressure versus temperature for the liquid-gas, solid-liquid, and solid-gas phase-transition equilibria of a substance. ...

Use models to compare the phases of matter and the physical changes they undergo.

PS.PSc.1.2

physical-and-chemical-properties-of-matter

Physical and Chemical Properties of Matter

The characteristics that enable us to distinguish one substance from another are called properties.

Physical Properties of Matter

A physical property is ...

molecular-comparison-of-gases-liquids-and-solids

Molecular Comparison of Gases, Liquids, and Solids

Particles in a solid are tightly packed together (fixed shape) and often arranged in a regular pattern; in a liquid, they are close together with no ...

Intermolecular vs Intramolecular Forces

Intermolecular forces (IMF) are electrostatic attractions arising from charge-charge interactions between molecules. The strength of the intermolecular ...

Intermolecular Forces

Atoms and molecules interact through bonds (or forces): intramolecular and intermolecular. The forces are electrostatic as they arise from interactions ...

comparing-intermolecular-forces-melting-point-boiling-point

Comparing Intermolecular Forces: Melting Point, Boiling Point, and Miscibility

Intermolecular forces are attractive forces that exist between molecules. They dictate several bulk properties, such as melting points, boiling points, ...

Carry out investigations to compare physical and chemical properties of matter.

PS.PSc.1.3

The Atomic Theory of Matter

The earliest recorded discussion of the basic structure of matter comes from ancient Greek philosophers. Leucippus and Democritus argued that all matter ...

Subatomic Particles

Dalton was only partially correct about the particles that make up matter. All matter is composed of atoms, and atoms are composed of three smaller ...

The Bohr Model

Following the work of Ernest Rutherford and his colleagues in the early twentieth century, the picture of atoms consisting of tiny dense nuclei surrounded ...

Emission Spectra

When solids, liquids, or condensed gases are heated sufficiently, they radiate some of the excess energy as light. Photons produced in this manner have a ...

The de Broglie Wavelength

In the macroscopic world, objects that are large enough to be seen by the naked eye follow the rules of classical physics. A billiard ball moving on a ...

The Uncertainty Principle

Werner Heisenberg considered the limits of how accurately one can measure properties of an electron or other microscopic particles. He determined that ...

Use models to interpret the data presented in Bohr diagrams and electron dot diagrams for neutral atoms of elements 1 through 18.

PS.PSc.1.4

Ions and Ionic Charges

In ordinary chemical reactions, the nucleus &mdash; which contains the protons and neutrons of each atom and thus identifies the element &mdash; remains ...

Use models to compare representations of atoms, ions, and isotopes.

PS.PSc.1.5

The Periodic Table

As early chemists discovered more elements, they realized that various elements could be grouped by their similar chemical behaviors. One such grouping ...

Periodic Classification of the Elements

The periodic table arranges atoms based on increasing atomic number so that elements with the same chemical properties recur periodically. When their ...

atomic-radii-and-effective-nuclear-charge

Atomic Radii and Effective Nuclear Charge

The elements in groups of the periodic table exhibit similar chemical behavior. This similarity occurs because the members of a group have the same number ...

Ionic Radii

Ionic radius is the measure used to describe the size of an ion. A cation always has fewer electrons and the same number of protons as the parent atom; it ...

Ionization Energy

The amount of energy required to remove the most loosely bound electron from a gaseous atom in its ground state is called its first ionization energy ...

Electron Affinity

The electron affinity (EA) is the energy change for adding an electron to a gaseous atom to form an anion (negative ion).



This process can be either ...

Alkali Metals

Group 1 elements are soft and shiny metallic solids. They are malleable, ductile, and good conductors of heat and electricity. The melting points of the ...

Halogens

Group 17 elements, known as halogens, are nonmetals. At room temperature, fluorine and chlorine are gases, bromine is a liquid, and iodine a solid. ...

Noble Gases


The elements in group 18 are noble gases (helium, neon, argon, krypton, xenon, and radon). They earned the name &ldquo;noble&rdquo; because they were ...

Use the Periodic Table as a model to predict the relative properties (metallic/nonmetallic character, ionic charge, and reactivity) and arrangement of elements based on the pattern of valence electrons in the outermost energy levels of atoms.

PS.PSc.1.6

Types of Chemical Bonds

Chemical bonding theories were pioneered by American chemist Gilbert&#xA0;N. Lewis. He developed a model called the Lewis model to explain the type and ...

Ionic Bonding and Electron Transfer

Ions are atoms or molecules bearing an electrical charge. A cation (a positive ion) forms when a neutral atom loses one or more electrons from its valence ...

Covalent Bonding and Lewis Structures

Compared to ionic bonds, which results from the transfer of electrons between metallic and nonmetallic atoms, covalent bonds result from the mutual ...

Bonding in Metals

Metallic bonds are formed between two metal atoms. A simplified model to describe metallic bonding has been developed by Paul Dr&#xFC;de called the ...

Construct an explanation to classify the type of chemical bond that occurs (covalent, ionic, or metallic) in a given substance.

PS.PSc.2.1

Nomenclature of Alkanes

In the late 19th-century, the number of new chemical compounds discovered increased tremendously. Hence, the necessity arose to develop a naming system ...

Nomenclature of Alkenes

The IUPAC naming system for alkenes replaces -an- with -en- in the corresponding parent alkanes. Accordingly, a simple alkene replaces the -ane suffix of ...

Nomenclature of Alkynes

Alkynes are unsaturated hydrocarbons characterized by the presence of carbon-carbon triple bonds and have a general formula CnH2n-2. The nomenclature of ...

structure-and-nomenclature-of-alcohols-and-phenols

Structure and Nomenclature of Alcohols and Phenols

Overview 
Alcohols are one of the most important functional groups in organic chemistry. The name of alcohol comes from the hydrocarbon from which it is ...

Structure and Nomenclature of Ethers

Structure and Bonding
Ethers are organic compounds with an ether functional group which is characterized by an oxygen atom connected to two &#8212; ...

IUPAC Nomenclature of Aldehydes

Aldehydes are named based on the systematic nomenclature rules set by the IUPAC. For acyclic aldehydes, the longest carbon chain containing the aldehydic ...

IUPAC Nomenclature of Ketones

Like aldehydes, ketones are named using IUPAC rules; in this case, by replacing &#8220;e&#8221; in the name of the longest hydrocarbon chain with ...

IUPAC Nomenclature of Carboxylic Acids

IUPAC names of carboxylic acids are systematically derived following a few rules discussed below.
For acyclic saturated monocarboxylic acids, the longest ...

Use models to apply International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) conventions to name and write formulas for simple compounds.

PS.PSc.2.2

Understand types, properties, and structure of matter.

Stepwise Ionization of Polyprotic Acids

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