Name: carbohydrate structure and bonding
Uploaded: 2023-04-30T18:28:47.000Z
Duration: 3 min 25 s
Channel: JoVE

K12 Standards

Florida Department of Education

High School

Life Science

SC.912.L.18

SC.912.L.18.1

Chemistry of Carbohydrates

Karbonhidratlar;karbon, hidrojen ve oksijenden oluşan bileşiklerdir. Bu moleküller isimlerini, her karbon için iki hidrojen atomu ve bir oksijen atomu içeren birçok monosakkaridin deneysel formülünden alır. Basit karbonhidratlar, monosakkaritler adı verilen monomerler ve disakkaritler adı verilen dimerlerdir.Karmaşık karbonhidratlar, polisakkaritler adı verilen polimerlerdir. Bir monosakkarit, fonksiyonel grubuna göre bir aldoz veya bir ketoz olarak sınıflandırılabilir. Aldehit grubuna sahip olanlar aldozlar, keton grubuna sahip olanlar ise ketozlar olarak adlandırılır.Monosakkaritler genellikle zincirlerinde üç ila yedi karbon atomu içerir. Karbonil karbona en yakın uçtan başlayarak karbonların her biri numaralandırılabilir. Şekerler düzlemsel olmayan halka yapıları oluşturabilir ve doğada çoğunlukla bu döngüsel formda bulunur.Halka yapıları, karbonil grubu, bir yoğunlaşma reaksiyonu yoluyla molekülün karşı ucundaki bir hidroksil grubu ile reaksiyona girdiğinde oluşur. Reaktif aldehite veya ketona bağlı karbon aynı zamanda anomerik karbon olarak da bilinir. Bu karbon-oksijen halka yapıları iki anomer olarak var olabilir:alfa ve beta.Anomerler, karbonil karbondaki konfigürasyonda farklılık gösteren yapısal izomerlerdir. Alfa formunda anomerik karbon üzerindeki hidroksil grubu halka içerisinde bulunan son karbondaki CH2OH grubu halkanın zıt taraflarında, beta formunda ise aynı tarafta yer alırlar. Monosakkaritleri diğer moleküllere bağlayan bağlar için benzer bir adlandırma kuralı kullanılır.Halka yapısının altında oluşan bağlar alfa bağları olarak bilinirken, halkanın üstündeki bağlar beta bağları olarak bilinir. Glikosidik bağlantılar adındaki sayılar, bağlantılarda yer alan monosakkaritlerden gelen karbon sayılarını gösterir. İki monosakkarit, glikosidik bağlantılar yoluyla birbirine bağlandığında, disakkaritler oluştururlar.Glikosidik bağlantılar, bir monosakkaridin hidroksil grubu, bir su molekülünün ortadan kaldırılmasıyla başka bir monosakkaridin anomerik karbonu ile reaksiyona girdiğinde oluşan kovalent bağlardır. Polisakkaritler veya kompleks karbonhidratlar, kovalent bağlarla bir arada tutulan bir monosakkarit zinciridir. Bu moleküllerde bulunan glikosidik bağlardaki varyasyon, aynı monosakkaritten farklı tipte polisakkaritlere neden olabilir.Β-1, 4-glikosidik bağlarla bağlanan glikoz molekülleri, suda çözünmeyen bir polisakkarit olan selülozu oluşturur. Α-1, 4-glikosidik bağlarla bağlanan glikoz molekülleri, suda çözünür bir polimer ve bir nişasta bileşeni olan amiloz oluşturdu. Nişasta ve selüloz bitkilerde bulunan polisakkaritlerdir.Glikojen, α-1, 4-glikosidik bağlarla ve α-1, 6-glikosidik bağlarla aralıklı dallanmalarla bağlanan glikozdan oluşan suda çözünmeyen bir moleküldür. Glikojen, hayvanlarda bir depolama polisakkaridi görevi görür.

karbonhidratların kimyası

Karbonhidratlar insanlarda ve hayvanlarda diyetin önemli bir parçasıdır. Tahıllar, meyveler ve sebzeler, özellikle nişastanın ve birçok temel gıdanın bir bileşeni olan basit bir şeker formu olan glikoz yoluyla vücuda enerji sağlayan doğal karbonhidrat kaynaklarıdır. Stokiyometrik formül (CH2O)n karbonhidratları temsil eder (burada n moleküldeki karbon sayısıdır). Başka bir deyişle, karbonhidrat moleküllerinde karbonun hidrojene ve oksijene oranı 1:2:1'dir. Bu formül aynı zamanda "karbonhidrat" teriminin kökenini de açıklar: bileşenler karbon ("karbon") ve sudur ("hidrat"). Karbonhidratlar basit ve kompleks olarak sınıflandırılabilir. Monosakkaritler ve disakkaritler basit karbonhidratlardır. Polisakkaritler kompleks karbonhidratlardır.
 
 Monosakkaritler
 
 Monosakkaritler, en yaygınları glikoz olan basit şekerlerdir. Monosakkaritlerde karbon sayısı genellikle üç ila yedi arasında değişir. Şeker bir aldehit grubuna (R-CHO yapısına sahip fonksiyonel grup) sahipse, aldozdur ve bir keton grubuna (RC(=O)R' yapısına sahip fonksiyonel grup) sahipse, ketozdur. Şekerdeki karbon sayısına bağlı olarak triozlar (üç karbon), pentozlar (beş karbon) ve/veya heksozlar (altı karbon) olabilirler.
 
 Galaktoz ve fruktoz diğer yaygın monosakkaritlerdir. Glikoz, galaktoz ve fruktoz izomerik monosakkaritlerdir (heksozlar), yani aynı kimyasal formüle sahiptirler, ancak biraz farklı yapılara sahiptirler. Glikoz ve galaktoz aldozdur ve fruktoz ketozdur.
 
 Monosakkaritler doğrusal veya halka şeklinde moleküller olarak bulunabilirler. Sulu solüsyonda genellikle halka formundadırlar. Bir halka formundaki glikoz, anomerik karbon (halka oluşum sürecinde asimetrik hale gelen karbon 1) etrafında iki farklı hidroksil grubu düzenine (OH) sahip olabilir. Hidroksil grubu şekerdeki 1 numaralı karbonun altındaysa, alfa (α) pozisyonundadır ve eğer düzlemin üzerindeyse, beta (β) pozisyonundadır.
 
 <h4>Disakkaritler</h4>
 
 Disakkaritler, iki monosakkarit bir dehidrasyon reaksiyonuna (veya bir kondenzasyon reaksiyonuna veya dehidrasyon sentezine) maruz kaldığında oluşur. Bu işlem sırasında, bir monosakkarit hidroksil grubu başka bir monosakkarit hidrojen ile birleşir, bir su molekülünü serbest bırakır ve bir kovalent bağ oluşturur. Buna glikozidik bağ denir. Glikozidik bağlar alfa veya beta tipi olabilir. Birinci glikozun karbon-1 üzerindeki OH grubu halka düzleminin altında olduğunda bir alfa bağı oluşur ve karbon-1 üzerindeki OH grubu halka düzleminin üzerinde olduğunda bir beta bağı oluşur. En yaygın disakkarit, glikoz ve fruktoz monomerlerinden oluşan sukroz veya sofra şekeridir.
 
 <h4>Polisakkaritler</h4>
 
 Glikozidik bağlarla bağlanmış uzun bir monosakkarit zinciri bir polisakkarittir. Zincir dallanmış veya dallanmamış olabilir ve farklı tipte monosakkaritler içerebilir. Molekül ağırlığı, birleştirilmiş monomerlerin sayısına bağlı olarak 100.000 dalton veya daha fazla olabilir. Nişasta, glikojen, selüloz ve kitin polisakkaritlere örneklerdir.
 
 Bitkiler nişastayı şeker şeklinde depolar. Bitkilerde, bir amiloz ve amilopektin karışımı (her iki glikoz polimeri) bu şekerleri içerir. Nişasta, α 1-4 veya α 1-6 glikosidik bağlarla birleştirilen glikoz monomerlerini içerir. 1-4 ve 1-6 sayıları, bağı oluşturmak için birleştirilen iki rezidünün karbon sayısını ifade eder.
 
 Glikojen, insanlarda ve diğer omurgalılarda glikozun depo şeklidir ve glikoz monomerlerinden oluşur. Glikojen, nişastanın hayvansal eşdeğeridir ve genellikle karaciğer ve kas hücrelerinde depolanan oldukça dallı bir moleküldür. Kan şekeri seviyeleri düştüğünde, glikojen glikozu serbest bırakmak için parçalanır.
 Selüloz, en bol bulunan doğal biyopolimerdir. Selüloz çoğunlukla bitkinin hücre duvarında bulunur ve hücreye yapısal destek sağlar. Ahşap ve kağıt çoğunlukla selüloziktir. Glikoz monomerleri, β 1-4 glikosidik bağları birbirine bağlayan selüloz içerir.
 
 Bu metin bu kaynaktan uyarlanmıştır: <a href=""https://openstax.org/books/biology-2e/pages/3-2-carbohydrates"">Openstax, Biology 2e, Chapter 3.4: Carbohydrates.</a>

Karbonhidratların Kimyası

Karbonhidratlar, insanlarda ve hayvanlarda diyetin önemli bir parçasıdır. Tahıllar, meyveler ve sebzeler, karbonhidrat sağlayan doğal karbonhidrat kaynaklarıdır ...

Education

JoVE Core

Cell Biology

Hücre Biyolojisi

Unit 1

Ünite 1

Biochemistry of the Cell

Hücre Biyokimyası

KEY TERMS AND CONCEPTS

TEMEL TERİMLER VE KAVRAMLAR

carbohydrate structure and bonding

Carbohydrates are built from sugar units and the bonds that link them. Their chemistry explains how simple sugars join to form larger molecules. It also helps show why carbohydrates have different structures and functions.

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The transcript also highlights how these sugar units connect through chemical bonds. These links change the size and structure of the carbohydrate molecule. That structural change is important because it affects how the molecule behaves in living systems.

Carbohydrate Structure and Bonding

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SC.912.L.18.2

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SC.912.L.18.3

Ligand Binding Sites

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SC.912.L.18.4

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SC.912.L.18.5

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SC.912.L.18.6

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SC.912.L.18.7

A. All living things are composed of four basic categories of macromolecules and share the same basic needs for life.

B. Living organisms acquire the energy they need for life processes through various metabolic pathways (primarily photosynthesis and cellular respiration).

C. Chemical reactions in living things follow basic rules of chemistry and are usually regulated by enzymes.

D. The unique chemical properties of carbon and water make life on Earth possible.

Carbohydrate Structure and Bonding

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