Chapter 3
Fundamentals of Chemistry
The substance of the universe—from a grain of sand to a star—is called matter. Scientists define matter as anything that occupies space…
Elements are the smallest units of matter that cannot be broken down further by chemical processes. There are 118 known elements, but not all of…
A chemical symbol is an abbreviation that is used to indicate an element or an atom of an element. For example, the symbol for mercury is Hg. We use…
The number of protons in the nucleus of an atom is its atomic number (Z). This is the defining trait of an element. Its value determines the identity…
In the early 1900s, English chemist Frederick Soddy realized that an element could have atoms with different masses that were chemically…
Electrons are negatively charged subatomic particles attracted to and orbit around the positively-charged nucleus of an atom. They reside in spaces…
When atoms gain or lose electrons to achieve a more stable electron configuration they form ions. Ionic bonds are electrostatic attractions between…
Overview
When two atoms share electrons to complete their valence shells, they create a covalent bond. An atom's electronegativity—the…
Ions - When an atom participates in a chemical reaction that results in the donation or acceptance of one or more electrons, the atom becomes…
Solids, liquids, and gases are the three states of matter commonly found on Earth. A solid is rigid and possesses a definite shape. A liquid flows…
All chemical reactions begin with a reactant, the general term for one or more substances entering the reaction. Sodium and chloride ions, for…
The first law of thermodynamics holds that energy can neither be created nor destroyed—it can only change form. An organism's essential…
Chemical reactions require sufficient energy to cause the matter to collide with enough precision and force that old chemical bonds can be broken and…
A variety of factors influence the rate of chemical reactions. For a chemical reaction to happen, atoms must collide with enough energy to overcome…
The exceptional affinity, specificity, and selectivity of antibodies make them extraordinarily attractive vectors for tumor-targeted PET…
Measuring Lactase Enzymatic Activity in the Teaching Lab
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Understanding how enzymes work, and relating this to real life examples, is critical to a wide range of undergraduate degrees in the biological and…