Name: dalton’s laws and early atomic ideas
Uploaded: 2020-09-03T13:38:25.000Z
Duration: 2 min 59 s
Channel: JoVE

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Chemistry

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The Atomic Theory of Matter

كان اليونانيون القدماء مثل،ديموكرايتس أول من طوروا فكرة الذرات،أصغر وحدة غير قابلة للتجزئة مكونِه للماده. وقد تطور هذا المفهوم فيما بعد للنظرية الذريه،على يد العالم الإنجليزي جون دالتون. وكانت الفرضيه الأولى لنظرية دالتون الذرية تقترح أن العناصر تتكون من حبيبات،صغيرة غير قابلة للتجزئة منفردة،تسمى الذرات.على سبيل المثال،يتكون الهيدروجين من ذرتي هيدروجين متحدتين مع بعض،والأكسجين مكون من ذرتي أوكسجين متحدتين مع بعضهما. الفرضيه الثانية تنص علي أنه بينما تتطابق ذرات العنصر الواحد،فهي تختلف عن ذرات العناصر الأخري. ولهذا فإن جميع ذرات الهيدروجين متطابقة،ولكن تختلف عن ذرات الأكسجين.الفرضيه الثالثه تقترح أن ذرات العناصر المختلفة يمكن أن تندمج مع بعضها البعض،بنسب عدد-كامل بسيطة،لتشكل مركبات. مثلا،تندمج ذرتي هيدروجين وذرة واحدة أوكسجين بنسبة 2 إلى 1 لتشكل الماء H2O. آخر فرضيه لنظريه دالتون تنص علي أنّالتفاعلات الكيميائية لا تغير ذرات عنصر إلى ذرات عنصر مختلف؛بل تقوم الذرات الموجودة بإعادة ترتيب نفسها لتشكل مادة جديده.خلال تكوين الماء،ذرات الهيدروجين والأكسجين الموجوده لا تستحدث ولا تفني،بل يتم إعادة ترتيبها. بنى دالتون نظريته الذرية بناءاًعلى قانونين سابقين للتفاعلات الكيميائيه:قانون حفظ الكتلة وقانون النسب المحدده. ينص قانون حفظ الكلتله على أ ن الكتلة الكلية قبل وبعد التفاعلات الكيميائية تبقى ثابتة.مثلا،18 غرام من الماء تجزأت إلى 2 غرام من الهيدروجين و16 غرام من الأوكسجين. ينص قانون النسب المحدده على،و بشكل مستقل عن المصدر،في مركب كيميائي محدد،نسبة الكتلة للعنصر المكون تبقى ثابتة دائما. ولهذا فإن عينه من الماء النقي ستحتوي دائما علي نسبة 1 إلى 8 نسبة كتلة الهيدروجين إلى الأكسجين يغض النظر عن الكتلة الكلية للماء.ثم طرح دالتون قانون الخواص المتعدده بناءا على نظريته الخاصه. بناءًعلى هذا القانون،عندما يجتمع عنصرين لتشكيل أكثر من مركب،تتحد كتل مختلفة لعنصر الواحد مع الكتله الثابته للعنصر الآخر بنسبة رقم-كامل صغيرة. وبذلك تكون الكتله الثابته للهيدروجين،2 غرام،تتحد مع كتل مختلفة للأوكسجين،32 غرام أو 16 غرام،بنسبة رقم-كامل صغيرة 2 إلى 1،لتشكيل مركبين مختلفين:الهيدروجين بيروكسايد،والماء.

النظرية الذرية للمادة

إن أول مناقشة مسجلة للبنية الأساسية للمادة تأتي من الفلاسفة اليونانيين القدماء. جادل ليوكيبوس وديموقريطس بأن كل المادة تتكون من جسيمات صغيرة محدودة أطلقوا عليها اسم ذرة ، بمعنى “غير قابل للتجزئة” في وقت لاحق ، توصل أرسطو وآخرون إلى استنتاج مفاده أن المادة تتكون من مجموعات مختلفة من “العناصر” الأربعة — النار والأرض والهواء والماء — ويمكن تقسيمها بشكل لانهائي. ومن المثير للاهتمام أن هؤلاء الفلاسفة فكروا في الذرات و “العناصر” كمفاهيم فلسفية ، ولكن على ما يبدو لم يفكروا أبدًا في إجراء تجارب لاختبار أفكارهم.   ظلت وجهة النظر الأرسطية لتكوين المادة سائدة لأكثر من ألفي عام حتى أحدث العالم الإنجليزي جون دالتون ثورة في الكيمياء بفرضيته القائلة بأن سلوك المادة يمكن تفسيره باستخدام النظرية الذرية. نُشر لأول مرة في عام 1807 ، العديد من فرضيات دالتون’s حول السمات المجهرية للمادة لا تزال صالحة في النظرية الذرية الحديثة.   فيما يلي افتراضات نظرية دالتون’s الذرية: <ol><li> تتكون المادة من جسيمات صغيرة جدًا تسمى الذرات. الذرة هي أصغر وحدة في العنصر يمكن أن تشارك في تغيير كيميائي. </li><li> يتكون العنصر من نوع واحد فقط من الذرات ، والذي له كتلة مميزة للعنصر وهي واحدة لجميع ذرات هذا العنصر. تحتوي العينة الظاهرة للعين المجردة لعنصر ما على عدد كبير جدًا من الذرات ، وكلها لها خصائص كيميائية متطابقة. </li><li> تختلف ذرات عنصر واحد في خصائصها عن ذرات جميع العناصر الأخرى. </li><li> يتكون المركب من ذرات مكونة من عنصرين أو أكثر مدمجة في نسبة صغيرة إلى عدد صحيح. في مركب معين ، تكون أعداد ذرات كل عنصر من عناصره موجودة دائمًا بنفس النسبة </li><li> لا يتم إنشاء الذرات أو إتلافها أثناء تغيير كيميائي ولكن بدلاً من ذلك يتم إعادة ترتيبها لإنتاج مواد مختلفة عن تلك الموجودة قبل التغيير. </li></ol> استخدم دالتون ثلاثة قوانين للتفاعلات الكيميائية كأساس لنظريته: (1) قانون الحفاظ على الكتلة ، (2) قانون النسب المحددة ، و (3) قانون النسب المتعددة. توفر نظرية دالتون’s الذرية تفسيرًا مجهريًا للعديد من الخصائص الظاهرة للعين المجردة للمادة.   اكتشف قانون حفظ الكتلة الكيميائي الفرنسي أنطوان لافوازييه. ينص القانون على أن الذرات لا يتم إنشاؤها أو تدميرها أثناء تغيير كيميائي ؛ تبقى الكتلة الكلية للمادة الموجودة عندما تتغير المادة من نوع إلى آخر ثابتة. عرف دالتون أيضًا بتجارب الكيميائي الفرنسي جوزيف بروست ، الذي أوضح أن جميع عينات المركب النقي تحتوي على نفس العناصر بنفس النسبة بالكتلة. تُعرف هذه العبارة باسم قانون النسب المحددة أو قانون التكوين الثابت . الاقتراح القائل بأن عدد ذرات العناصر في مركب معين موجود دائمًا بنفس النسبة يتوافق مع هذه الملاحظات. استخدم دالتون أيضًا بيانات من بروست ، بالإضافة إلى نتائج تجاربه الخاصة ، لصياغة قانون آخر مثير للاهتمام. ينص قانون النسب المتعددة على أنه عندما يتفاعل عنصران لتشكيل أكثر من مركب واحد ، فإن الكتلة الثابتة لعنصر واحد ستتفاعل مع كتل العناصر الأخرى بنسبة أعداد صحيحة صغيرة. </ص> قدمت نظرية دالتون’s إطارًا تم توسيعه لاحقًا لإثبات أن الذرة تتكون من جسيمات تحت ذرية وأن ذرات نفس العنصر يمكن أن تختلف في الكتلة ، والمعروفة باسم النظائر. هذا النص مقتبس من <a href="https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-2e/pages/2-1-early-ideas-in-atomic-theory"> Openstax ، الكيمياء 2 هـ ، القسم 2.1: الأفكار المبكرة في النظرية الذرية. </a>

تأتي أقدم مناقشة مسجلة للبنية الأساسية للمادة من الفلاسفة اليونانيين القدماء. جادل ليوكيبوس وديموقريطوس بأن كل شيء مهم ...

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dalton’s laws and early atomic ideas

Dalton’s atomic theory explains matter with atoms, elements, and compounds. It also shows how chemical changes follow simple laws. This idea gave chemistry a microscopic model for what can be seen in the lab.

The earliest recorded ideas about matter came from ancient Greek philosophers. Leucippus and Democritus said all matter was made of tiny, finite particles called atomos, meaning “indivisible.” Aristotle and others later argued that matter was made from four elements: fire, earth, air, and water. They also believed matter could be divided forever, and these ideas were treated as philosophy rather than experiments.

That view lasted for more than two thousand years. Then English scientist John Dalton changed chemistry with an atomic theory of matter. He first published it in 1807. Many of his ideas still fit modern atomic theory.

Dalton’s postulates describe matter at the atomic level. Matter is made of extremely small particles called atoms. An atom is the smallest unit of an element that can take part in a chemical change. An element contains only one type of atom, and atoms of the same element have the same characteristic mass and chemical properties. Atoms of different elements have different properties. A compound is made of atoms of two or more elements joined in a small, whole-number ratio, and the ratio stays the same in a given compound. During a chemical change, atoms are not created or destroyed. They are rearranged into new substances.

Dalton built his theory using three key laws of chemistry. The law of conservation of mass says mass stays constant during a chemical change, a result linked to Antoine Lavoisier. The law of definite proportions, also called the law of constant composition, says every pure sample of a compound contains the same elements in the same mass ratio, as shown by Joseph Proust. Dalton also used the law of multiple proportions, which says that when two elements form more than one compound, fixed masses of one element combine with the other in small whole-number ratios.

Dalton’s atomic theory gives a microscopic explanation for macroscopic matter. It also helped later scientists show that atoms contain subatomic particles. Later work also showed that atoms of the same element can differ in mass, which are called isotopes.

Dalton’s Laws and Early Atomic Ideas

the atomic theory of matter

Dalton’s atomic theory explains matter with atoms, elements, and compounds. It also shows how chemical changes follow simple laws. This idea gave chemistry a microscopic model for what can be seen in the lab. The earliest recorded ideas about matter came from ancient Greek philosophers. Leucippus and Democritus said all matter was made of tiny, finite particles called atomos, meaning “indivisible.” Aristotle and others later argued that matter was made from four elements: fire, earth, air, and...

subatomic particles

Atomic Structure: Protons, Neutrons, and Electrons

Atomic structure is built from three subatomic particles: protons, neutrons, and electrons. Atoms make up all matter, and these particles explain an atom’s mass and charge. The electron was first identified at the end of the 19th century by J.J. Thomson. He used a cathode ray tube, a sealed glass tube with almost all the air removed and two metal electrodes. When high voltage was applied, a visible beam called a cathode ray formed. The beam bent toward positive charge and away from negative...

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The periodic table organizes elements by repeating patterns in their properties. Chemists first noticed that some elements behaved alike, so they grouped them by chemical behavior. Lithium, sodium, and potassium are one example. They are shiny and conduct heat and electricity well. Calcium, strontium, and barium form another group with similar physical and chemical properties. Yet these two groups are not the same. The lithium group is much more reactive, and its elements form oxygen compounds...

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Average atomic mass explains why many elements on the periodic table have decimal values. Atoms are extremely small, so scientists use the atomic mass unit, or amu, to measure them. A carbon atom weighs less than 2 × 10−23 g, and the amu is defined from carbon-12. One amu is exactly 1/12 the mass of one carbon-12 atom, which is 1.6605 × 10−24 g. The dalton (Da) and the unified atomic mass unit (u) mean the same thing as the amu. For a single atom, atomic mass is usually close to its mass...

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The mole links mass and the number of particles in a substance. It gives chemists a standard way to count atoms and molecules in samples that are far too small to see. It also helps show why substances with the same kinds of atoms can still have very different properties, like water, H2O, and hydrogen peroxide, H2O2. The mole is an amount unit, like a pair or a dozen. One mole contains 6.02214076 × 10^23 discrete entities, such as atoms or molecules. This number is usually rounded to 6.022 ×...

key terms and concepts

Explore Dalton’s atomic theory, the laws of conservation of mass, definite proportions, and multiple proportions, plus the early ideas that shaped modern chemistry.

Dalton’s Laws and Early Atomic Ideas | JoVE K12

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Analyze and interpret data to explain the mechanisms and properties of the two main types of intramolecular (ionic and covalent) bonds.

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Analyze the structure of atoms and isotopes.

Dalton’s Laws and Early Atomic Ideas

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