Name: how organelles keep cells working
Uploaded: 2023-04-30T10:29:11.000Z
Duration: 1 min 37 s
Channel: JoVE

K12 Standards

north-carolina-k-12-science-standard-course-of-study

North Carolina K-12 Science Standard Course of Study

9-12

Biology

from-molecules-to-organisms-structures-and-processes

From Molecules to Organisms- Structures and Processes

LS.Bio.1.4

Eukaryotic Compartmentalization

تحتوي الخلايا حقيقية النواة على العديد من العضيات المرتبطة بالغشاء والتي تسمح بحدوث وظائف خلوية محددة في بيئات مكروية متميزة ، محمية من الداخل السيتوبلازمي وكذلك البيئة خارج الخلية.
على سبيل المثال ، تتحكم مجمعات المسام النووية المضمنة في الغلاف النووي في نقل الجزيئات داخل وخارج النواة. يساعد هذا في الحفاظ على الظروف الخاضعة للرقابة داخل النواة لتنظيم العمليات الحرجة ، مثل التعبير الجيني.
علاوة على ذلك ، تتطلب بعض البروتينات بيئة مؤكسدة ويجب عزلها عن العصارة الخلوية المختزلة. يتم إنتاج هذه البروتينات وتعديلها كيميائيا داخل الشبكة الإندوبلازمية قبل نقلها إلى وجهاتها النهائية عبر عوالم كيميائية صغيرة تسمى الحويصلات.
توفر العضيات الأخرى ، مثل البيروكسيسومات ، الحماية عن طريق عزل الإنزيمات التي تحول منتجاتها الثانوية السامة ، مثل بيروكسيد الهيدروجين ، إلى جزيئات غير ضارة ، مثل الماء.
وبالمثل ، تفصل الجسيمات الحالة الإنزيمات الهاضمة التي تعمل بدرجة حموضة منخفضة جدا عن العصارة الخلوية.
تساعد البيئة الحمضية بين غشاءي الميتوكوندريا على إنتاج الطاقة في شكل ATP.
بشكل عام ، يدعم التقسيم حقيقيات النواة الإجراءات التي قد تكون غير متوافقة إذا تم تنفيذها في وقت واحد دون شكل من أشكال الاحتواء.

تجزئة حقيقية النواة

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إحدى السمات المميزة للخلايا حقيقية النواة هي أنها تحتوي على عضيات محاطة بغشاء، مثل النواة والميتوكوندريا، التي تقوم بوظائف متخصصة. نظرًا لأن الأغشية البيولوجية قابلة للنفاذ بشكل انتقائي للمواد المذابة فقط، فإنها تساعد في إنشاء حجرة ذات ظروف خاضعة للرقابة داخل العضية. تم تصميم هذه البيئات الدقيقة لتتناسب مع الوظائف المحددة للعضية وتساعد على عزلها عن العصارة الخلوية المحيطة.

على سبيل المثال، تحافظ الليزوزومات الموجودة في الخلايا الحيوانية على بيئة حمضية مقارنة بالعصارة الخلوية المحيطة بها. وهذا يساعد الإنزيمات الليزوزومية على هضم الحطام الخلوي. وبالمثل، فإن تنظيم درجة الحموضة داخل الميتوكوندريا يساعد في تركيب جزيئات الطاقة.

بالإضافة إلى ذلك، تتطلب بعض البروتينات بيئة مؤكسدة من أجل الطي والمعالجة بشكل صحيح، ولكن العصارة الخلوية تكون مختزلة بشكل عام. ولذلك، يتم إنتاج هذه البروتينات بواسطة الريبوسومات في الشبكة الإندوبلازمية (ER)، التي تحافظ على البيئة المحيطة اللازمة. يتم بعد ذلك نقل البروتينات إلى وجهتها النهائية داخل الخلية من خلال الحويصلات المرتبطة بالغشاء.

تنقسم المادة الوراثية للخلايا حقيقية النواة داخل النواة، ويحيط بها غشاء مزدوج يسمى الغلاف النووي. تتحكم المساماًاً الصغيرة الموجودة في الغلاف في الجزيئات أو الأيونات التي يمكنها الدخول إلى النواة أو الخروج منها. على سبيل المثال، يخرج الحمض النووي الريبوزي المرسال (mRNA) من النواة من خلال هذه المساماًاً ليأخذ التعليمات الجينية المشفرة في الحمض النووي إلى الريبوسومات، حيث يمكن ترجمتها إلى بروتين.

لذلك، يسمح التقسيم بتنفيذ العديد من الوظائف المختلفة بكفاءة أكبر داخل نفس الخلية من خلال تركيز المكونات المطلوبة في مكان محدود وفصلها عن بقية الخلية.

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تتمثل إحدى السمات المميزة للخلايا حقيقية النواة في أنها تحتوي على عضيات مرتبطة بالغشاء ، مثل النواة والميتوكوندريا ، والتي تحمل ...

Education

JoVE Core

Cell Biology

بيولوجيا الخلية

Unit 1

الوحدة الأولى

Cells, Genomes, and Evolution

الخلايا والجينومات والتطور

KEY TERMS AND CONCEPTS

المصطلحات والمفاهيم الأساسية

how organelles keep cells working

Eukaryotic cells keep their organelles separate so each part can do a specific job. Organelles such as the nucleus and mitochondria are surrounded by membranes. These membranes are selectively permeable, which means they control what enters and leaves. That control creates small internal environments with conditions suited to each organelle.

These controlled spaces help organelles work more efficiently. In animal cells, lysosomes keep an acidic environment that helps their enzymes digest cellular debris. Mitochondria also rely on pH control to help make energy molecules. Some proteins need an oxidizing environment to fold and process correctly, so they are made by ribosomes in the endoplasmic reticulum, or ER, instead of in the cytosol, which is usually reductive.

After proteins are made, membrane-bound vesicles move them to their final location in the cell. The nucleus also shows how compartmentalization supports cell function. It holds the cell’s genetic material inside a double membrane called the nuclear envelope. Small pores in this envelope control what can enter or leave, and messenger RNA, or mRNA, exits through these pores to carry DNA instructions to ribosomes for protein synthesis. By keeping key materials in the right place, compartmentalization lets one cell carry out many tasks at the same time.

How Organelles Keep Cells Working

what are cells?

Cells as the Building Blocks of Life

Cells are the basic building blocks of life. A bacterium can be a single cell, while a human is made of trillions of cells. Even with this range, cells share key features that support life. A living cell has a plasma membrane. This is a bilayer of lipids that separates the cytoplasm inside the cell from the outside environment. A cell also carries genetic information in the form of DNA. In prokaryotic cells, DNA is found in a region called the nucleoid. In eukaryotic cells, DNA is enclosed...

the tree of life - bacteria, archaea, and eukaryotes

the-tree-of-life-bacteria-archaea-and-eukaryotes

Three Domains on the Tree of Life

The tree of life shows how living things are grouped into three domains: Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukaryotes. This classification helps explain the major branches of life and how they are related. Bacteria and Archaea are both single-celled organisms, but they are not the same. Eukaryotes include organisms with more complex cells, such as plants, animals, and fungi. Together, these three domains give a broad picture of life on Earth. Understanding the tree of life helps students compare cell...

prokaryotic cells

How Prokaryotes Survive Without a Nucleus

Prokaryotes are small unicellular organisms that live without a nucleus. They include the domains Archaea and Bacteria. Bacteria include common microbes such as Salmonella and E. coli, while Archaea include extremophiles that live in harsh places like volcanic springs. Prokaryotic cells still share several basic features with eukaryotic cells. They have a plasma membrane, cytoplasm, ribosomes, and genetic material in the form of single, circular DNA. Their cell parts float freely in the...

eukaryotic compartmentalization

Eukaryotic cells keep their organelles separate so each part can do a specific job. Organelles such as the nucleus and mitochondria are surrounded by membranes. These membranes are selectively permeable, which means they control what enters and leaves. That control creates small internal environments with conditions suited to each organelle. These controlled spaces help organelles work more efficiently. In animal cells, lysosomes keep an acidic environment that helps their enzymes digest...

eukaryotic evolution

How Eukaryotic Cells Became Complex

Eukaryotic cells became complex through a debated evolutionary path that likely involved endosymbiosis. The most accepted model is the endosymbiont theory, which explains how organelles such as mitochondria and chloroplasts may have entered an ancestral cell. Other ideas include the nucleus-first hypothesis, the mitochondria-first hypothesis, and the eukaryote-first hypothesis. The nucleus-first hypothesis says an ancestral prokaryote first formed a membrane around its DNA, creating the...

animal and plant cell structure

Plant vs Animal Cell Division and Specialization

Plant and animal cells differ in how they divide, organize into tissues, and specialize for different jobs. Both cell types divide by mitosis in non-gametic cells and by meiosis in gametic cells, but the details are not the same. These differences help explain how each cell type supports growth and reproduction. During cell division, animal cells use centrosomes to organize spindle fibers and separate chromosomes. Plant cells do not have centrosomes. Instead, they use a microtubule-organizing...

cytoplasm

Cytoplasm and the Cell’s Internal Support

The cytoplasm is the cell’s internal space that holds organelles and the cytoskeleton. It is suspended in the cytosol, an aqueous fluid made of water, ions, salts, and many organic molecules. This fluid helps keep the cell organized and supports many cellular activities. The cytoplasm is also where protein synthesis and protein folding take place. The watery cytosol helps proteins fold correctly. In a folded protein, hydrophobic amino acid side chains tend to stay buried in the core, while...

the nucleus

Nuclear DNA, Chromatin, and Nucleoli

The nucleus is a membrane-bound organelle that stores chromosomal DNA and helps control what proteins a eukaryotic cell makes. It acts as the cell’s control center. DNA in mitochondria and chloroplasts is different because it mainly supports functions specific to those organelles. Inside the nucleus, DNA is wrapped around proteins called histones. This DNA-protein complex is called chromatin. During interphase, when the cell is not dividing, chromatin stays loosely arranged so the DNA is easy...

the dna helix

How DNA Structure Was Discovered

DNA is the genetic material that passes traits from one generation to the next in organisms and most viruses. It is made of two strands of nucleotides that twist into a spring-like double helix. The shape is not perfectly even. It also has repeating grooves called the major groove and the minor groove. The major groove forms where the sugar-phosphate backbones are farther apart. This wider space gives DNA-binding proteins, including transcription factors, better access to the bases. The minor...

the central dogma

DNA to Protein: RNA’s Role

DNA to protein flow depends on RNA as the link between genetic information and the amino acids that build proteins. Early scientists knew that DNA stores the information for cell functions and that proteins carry out most of those functions. For a long time, they did not know how the code in DNA became a working protein. At first, many people thought one gene was changed directly into its protein. Two findings in eukaryotic cells challenged that idea. Protein production does not happen in the...

mutations

Mutations in DNA and Inherited Disease

Mutations are changes in the DNA sequence. They can happen on their own during DNA copying, or they can be caused by environmental factors. Scientists describe mutations in several ways, including whether they change the amino acid sequence of a protein, how much DNA they affect, and whether they occur in somatic cells or germline cells. Some mutations are point mutations. A point mutation changes a single nucleotide in DNA. Other mutations are chromosomal alterations, which change the number...

genome size and the evolution of new genes

genome-size-and-the-evolution-of-new-genes

Genome Size and Gene Evolution

Genome size and gene evolution are linked through changes in DNA sequence and genome structure. Some genes can arise from parts of the genome that were not coding before, while others come from changes to existing genes. These shifts help explain how new genetic material can appear over time. A genome is the full set of DNA in an organism. Its size can change as DNA is added, removed, or rearranged. The transcript highlights that genome size is not fixed, and that these changes can shape the...

gene families

Shared Origins of Gene Families

Gene families are groups of related genes that share a common origin. They form when genes are copied and then change over time. These related genes can be found within the same genome. The video also connects gene families to homologous genes and orthologous genes. Homologous genes are genes with a shared evolutionary origin. Orthologous genes are homologous genes found in different species. Gene families help show how these relationships are used to study evolution and related gene functions.

gene evolution - fast or slow?

Gene Evolution Rates and Selection

Gene evolution can happen at different rates, and natural selection helps shape those changes. Some genes change slowly because important DNA changes are removed over time. Other genes can change more quickly when different mutations are kept in a population. The rate of evolution depends on how a gene is used and how strongly it is affected by selection. Genes with essential jobs often stay more similar across species. Genes under weaker pressure may show more variation and may evolve faster.<br...

types of genetic transfer between organisms

types-of-genetic-transfer-between-organisms

Vertical and Horizontal Gene Transfer

Genetic transfer between organisms happens in two main ways: vertical gene transfer and horizontal gene transfer. These two routes explain how hereditary material moves from one generation to the next or between organisms that are not parent and offspring. Vertical gene transfer passes genes from parent to offspring during reproduction. This is the usual way genetic information is inherited in living things. Horizontal gene transfer moves genetic material between organisms outside of...

key terms and concepts

Learn how eukaryotic organelles use membranes, pH control, and nuclear pores to create the right conditions for digestion, energy use, and protein synthesis.

How Organelles Keep Cells Working | JoVE K12

cell biology

JoVE Core Cell Biology illustrates complex cellular processes in easy-to-understand yet comprehensive animated video lessons. This collection focuses on the essential components and functions of cells, including organelles and membranes, cellular transport, and cell energetics. It is complemented by scientist-in-action videos that demonstrate the application of cell biology in real-world research experiments.

Louisiana Student Standards for Science

High School

Life Sciences

heredity-inheritance-and-variation-of-traits

Heredity: Inheritance And Variation Of Traits

HS-LS3-1

Tennessee Academic Standards

From Molecules to Organisms: Structures and Processes

BIO1.LS1.2

Virginia  Standards of Learning

HIgh School

BIO.6

BIO.6.a

Life Science

LS.3

LS.3.b

Florida Department of Education

SC.912.L.15

SC.912.L.15.6

Texas Essential Knowledge and Skills

BIO.5

BIO.5.B

Georgia Standards of Excellence

SB4.a

Compounds Essential to Human Function

The human body is composed of cells that are fundamentally made up of several different molecules. These molecules are essential to carry out all ...

Macromolecules

Biomolecules
Organisms contain a wide variety of organic molecules with numerous functions which depend on the chemical structures and properties of these ...

Solution Preparation
ExpandCAUTION: It is important to always use care when handling reagents. For example, iodine will stain clothes and skin so wear ...

Identifying Macromolecules with Indicator Solutions
ExpandHYPOTHESES: In this activity, the experimental hypothesis might be that the addition of an ...

pH Regulation in Cells

pH plays a critical role in maintaining normal cellular activities. It helps maintain the structure and function of various proteins, dictates the charge ...

Chemistry of the Cell

Overview of Functional Groups

Functional groups are a group of atoms with characteristic properties, which when linked to the carbon skeleton of a molecule, alter the properties of ...

Introduction to Carbohydrates

Carbohydrates, proteins, and fats are the primary macronutrients in the human diet. However, carbohydrates are the most favored source of energy in the ...

Carbohydrate Metabolism

Sugars as Energy Storage Molecules

What are Lipids?

lipid-derived-compounds-in-the-human-body

Lipid-derived Compounds in the Human Body

Fats and lipids are crucial components in the human body. Some lipid-derived compounds, such as fat-soluble vitamins, eicosanoids, lipoproteins, and ...

Fats as Energy Storage Molecules

What are Proteins?

Protein Organization

Globular Proteins

In organisms, proteins are the most abundant macromolecules. They act as the building blocks of life and play various crucial roles in the body. Proteins ...

Fibrous Proteins

Fibrous proteins are either long and narrow proteins or assemble to form long and thin structures. They contain repetitive units and usually consist of ...

Protein Denaturation

The function of proteins depends on their native three-dimensional structure, which is dictated by the amino acid sequence of the specific protein. ...

Role of Proteins in the Human Body

Proteins are the building block of life. They are also&#160; the most abundant macromolecules with as many diverse roles in the body. They are part of ...

Nucleic Acids and Nucleotides

Nucleic acids are the most important macromolecules for the continuity of life. They carry the cell&#39;s genetic blueprint and have instructions for its ...

Nucleic Acid Structure

The pentose sugar in DNA is deoxyribose, while in RNA the pentose sugar is ribose. The difference between the sugars is the presence of the hydroxyl group ...

ATP Energy Storage and Release

ATP and Macromolecule Synthesis

Biological macromolecules are organic compounds, predominantly composed of carbon atoms. The carbon atoms are covalently bonded with hydrogen, oxygen, ...

Construct an explanation to illustrate relationships between structure and function of major macromolecules essential for life.

LS.Bio.1.1

Introduction to Enzymes

The use of enzymes by humans dates to 7000 BCE. Humans first used enzymes to ferment sugars and produce alcohol without knowing that this was an ...

Enzymes and Activation Energy

The activation energy (or free energy of activation), abbreviated as Ea, is the small amount of energy input necessary for all chemical reactions to ...

Introduction to Enzyme Kinetics

Enzyme kinetics studies the rates of biochemical reactions. Scientists monitor the reaction rates for a particular enzymatic reaction at various substrate ...

Turnover Number and Catalytic Efficiency

The turnover number of an enzyme is the maximum number of substrate molecules it can transform per unit time. Turnover numbers for most enzymes range from ...

Catalytically Perfect Enzymes

The theory of catalytically perfect enzymes was first proposed by W.J. Albery and J. R. Knowles in 1976. These enzymes catalyze biochemical reactions at ...

introduction-to-mechanisms-of-enzyme-catalysis

Introduction to Mechanisms of Enzyme Catalysis

For many years, scientists thought that enzyme-substrate binding took place in a simple &#34;lock-and-key&#34; fashion. This model stated that the enzyme ...

Ligand Binding and Linkage

Cooperative Allosteric Transitions

Ribozymes

Carry out investigations to illustrate how enzymes act as catalysts for biochemical reactions and how environmental factors affect enzyme activity.

LS.Bio.1.2

What are Cells?

Cells are the smallest and basic units of life, whether it is a single cell that forms the entire organism, e.g., in a bacterium or trillions of them, ...

Cell Size

Cell sizes vary widely among and within organisms. Bacterial cells range between 1-10 micrometers (&#x3BC;m)and are considerably smaller than most ...

One of the distinguishing features of eukaryotic cells is that they contain membrane-bound organelles, such as the nucleus and mitochondria, that carry ...

Prokaryotic Cells

Prokaryotes are small unicellular organisms that include the domains&#x2014;Archaea and Bacteria. Bacteria include many common organisms, such as ...

Cytoplasm

The cytoplasm consists of organelles and a framework of protein scaffolds called the cytoskeleton suspended in an aqueous solution, the cytosol. The ...

The Nucleus

The nucleus is a membrane-bound organelle that acts as a control center in a eukaryotic cell. It contains chromosomal DNA, which controls gene expression ...

Endoplasmic Reticulum

Endoplasmic ReticulumThe endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is an extensive network of membranous sacs and tubules in eukaryotic cells, continuous with the outer ...

Ribosomes

Ribosomes translate genetic information encoded by messenger RNA (mRNA) into proteins. Both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells have ribosomes. Cells that ...

Golgi Apparatus

As they leave the Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER), properly folded and assembled proteins are selectively packaged into vesicles. These vesicles are ...

Lysosomes

Lysosomes are membrane-enclosed spherical sacs derived from the Golgi apparatus. The most important function of the lysosome is degrading macromolecules ...

Peroxisomes

Peroxisomes and mitochondria are two important oxygen-utilizing organelles in eukaryotic cells. Mitochondria carry out cellular respiration&#x2014;the ...

Introduction to the Cytoskeleton

Overview of the Cytoskeleton
The cytoskeleton is a network of protein filaments present within the cell, having three distinct filaments ...

Introduction to Actin

Actin is a highly conserved cytoskeletal protein found abundantly in eukaryotic cells. It constitutes 10% weight of the total cellular protein in muscle ...

Cell Structure

Background
Cells represent the most basic biological units of all organisms, whether it be simple, single-celled organisms like bacteria, or large, ...

overview-of-myosin-structure-and-function

Overview of Myosin Structure and Function

Myosins are a family of molecular motor proteins, first identified in the skeletal muscles, where they are responsible for muscle contraction. Along with ...

Visualizing Onion and Cheek Cells
ExpandImmediately before the experiment, wash and peel onion bulbs for the class.
Remove the entire brown outer skin and ...

Microtubules

Microtubules are the thickest cytoskeletal filaments with a diameter of 25 nm. In prokaryotic organisms, microtubules are commonly found in locomotory ...

The Structure of Intermediate Filaments

The intermediate filaments are one of three widely studied cytoskeletal filaments. They are so named as their diameter (10 nm) is in between that of ...

Types of Intermediate Filaments

The intermediate filaments are an essential component of the cytoskeleton. Presently six types of intermediate filament have been identified. Type I and ...

Gap Junctions

Multicellular organisms employ a variety of ways for cells to communicate with each other. Gap junctions are specialized proteins that form pores between ...

The Extracellular Matrix

In order to maintain tissue organization, many animal cells are surrounded by structural molecules that make up the extracellular matrix (ECM). Together, ...

Tissues

Cells with similar structure and function are grouped into tissues. A group of tissues with a specialized function is called an organ. There are four main ...

Use models to explain how the structure of organelles determines its function and supports overall cell processes.

LS.Bio.1.3

Analyze how the relationship between structure and function supports life processes within organisms.

How Organelles Keep Cells Working

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