Name: dna to protein: rna’s role
Uploaded: 2023-04-30T10:29:56.000Z
Duration: 1 min 20 s
Channel: JoVE

K12 Standards

north-carolina-k-12-science-standard-course-of-study

NC K-12 Science Standard Course of Study

9-12

Biology

from-molecules-to-organisms-structures-and-processes

From Molecules to Organisms- Structures and Processes

LS.Bio.1.5

The Central Dogma

The central dogma of molecular biology states that the information encoded in DNA is transferred to RNA, which then directs the synthesis of proteins based on these instructions.
First, during transcription, DNA is used as a template to synthesize messenger RNA or mRNA.
The mRNA represents a copy of the coding strand of DNA, except that the thymines are replaced with uracils.
Next, the mRNA is translated into a chain of amino acids by a ribosome.
Here, groups of three nucleotides on mRNA, also known as codons, bind to complementary sequences or anticodons on the transfer RNA or tRNA molecules.
Each tRNA is attached to a particular amino acid, depending on the specific codon.
For example, the codon CCA binds to a tRNA attached to proline, while AGC binds to a tRNA attached to serine.
In this way, the genetic code specifies the order of amino acids in the resulting polypeptide, which is further processed to become a functional protein.

the central dogma

The central dogma explains the flow of genetic information from DNA nucleotides to the amino acid sequence of proteins.
RNA is the Missing Link Between DNA and Proteins
In the early 1900s, scientists discovered that DNA stores all the information needed for cellular functions and that proteins perform most of these functions. However, the mechanisms of converting genetic information into functional proteins remained unknown for many years. Initially, it was believed that a single gene is directly converted into its encoded protein. Two crucial discoveries in eukaryotic cells challenged this theory. First, protein production does not occur in the nucleus. Second, DNA is not present outside the nucleus. These findings sparked the search for an intermediary molecule that connects DNA with protein production. This intermediary molecule was found to be RNA.
RNA is synthesized in the nucleus using DNA as a template. The newly-synthesized RNA is similar in sequence to the DNA strand, except thymine is replaced by uracil. In eukaryotes, this primary transcript is further processed, removing the protein non-coding regions, capping the 5&#39; end, and adding a 3&#39; poly-A tail, to create mature mRNA, which is then exported to the cytoplasm.
The Genetic Code is Redundant
Proteins are created from 20 amino acids in eukaryotes. Combining four nucleotides in sets of three provides 64 (43) possible codons.This means that more than one codon can encode an individual amino acid. Thus, the genetic code is said to be redundant or degenerate. Often, but not always, codons that specify the same amino acids differ only in the third nucleotide of the triplet. For example, the codons GUU, GUC, GUA, and GUG all represent the amino acid valine. However, AUG is the only codon that represents the amino acid methionine. The codon AUG is also the codon where protein synthesis starts and is, therefore, called the start codon. Redundancy in the system minimizes the harmful effects of mutations. For instance, an alteration at the third position of the codon might not necessarily change the amino acid encoded, thereby, causing no change in the protein functionality.
The Genetic Code is Universal
With a few exceptions, most prokaryotic and eukaryotic organisms use the same genetic code for protein synthesis. This universality of the genetic code has enabled advances in scientific research in the field of agriculture and medicine. For instance, human insulin can now be manufactured on a large scale in bacteria using recombinant DNA technology. Recombinant DNA technology involves the use of genetic material from different species. Genes encoding human insulin are joined with bacterial DNA and inserted into a bacterial cell. The bacterial cell then performs transcription and translation to produce the human insulin protein, which can treat diabetes in patients.

The central dogma explains the flow of genetic information from DNA nucleotides to the amino acid sequence of proteins.
RNA is the Missing Link Between ...

Education

JoVE Core

Cell Biology

Unit 1

Cells, Genomes, and Evolution

KEY TERMS AND CONCEPTS

dna to protein: rna’s role

DNA to protein flow depends on RNA as the link between genetic information and the amino acids that build proteins. Early scientists knew that DNA stores the information for cell functions and that proteins carry out most of those functions. For a long time, they did not know how the code in DNA became a working protein.

At first, many people thought one gene was changed directly into its protein. Two findings in eukaryotic cells challenged that idea. Protein production does not happen in the nucleus, and DNA is not found outside the nucleus. That led scientists to look for an intermediate molecule that could connect DNA with protein production.

That molecule is RNA. RNA is made in the nucleus using DNA as a template. The new RNA strand is similar to the DNA sequence, except uracil replaces thymine. In eukaryotes, this first RNA copy is processed by removing protein-coding gaps, adding a 5' cap, and attaching a 3' poly-A tail. The finished messenger RNA, or mRNA, then leaves the nucleus and moves into the cytoplasm.

The genetic code uses codons, which are three-nucleotide groups that specify amino acids. Because four nucleotides are read in triplets, there are 64 possible codons for 20 amino acids. This makes the genetic code redundant, or degenerate, because more than one codon can code for the same amino acid. Often these codons differ only at the third nucleotide. For example, GUU, GUC, GUA, and GUG all code for valine. AUG is the only codon for methionine, and it also serves as the start codon for protein synthesis. Redundancy can reduce the effect of some mutations, especially when a change at the third base does not alter the amino acid.

The genetic code is also mostly universal. With a few exceptions, most prokaryotes and eukaryotes use the same code to make proteins. This universality has made genetic research useful in medicine and agriculture. One important example is recombinant DNA technology, which combines DNA from different species. Human insulin genes can be joined to bacterial DNA and put into a bacterial cell. The cell then carries out transcription and translation to make human insulin, which is used to treat diabetes.

DNA to Protein: RNA’s Role

what are cells?

Cells as the Building Blocks of Life

Cells are the basic building blocks of life. A bacterium can be a single cell, while a human is made of trillions of cells. Even with this range, cells share key features that support life. A living cell has a plasma membrane. This is a bilayer of lipids that separates the cytoplasm inside the cell from the outside environment. A cell also carries genetic information in the form of DNA. In prokaryotic cells, DNA is found in a region called the nucleoid. In eukaryotic cells, DNA is enclosed...

the tree of life - bacteria, archaea, and eukaryotes

the-tree-of-life-bacteria-archaea-and-eukaryotes

Three Domains on the Tree of Life

The tree of life shows how living things are grouped into three domains: Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukaryotes. This classification helps explain the major branches of life and how they are related. Bacteria and Archaea are both single-celled organisms, but they are not the same. Eukaryotes include organisms with more complex cells, such as plants, animals, and fungi. Together, these three domains give a broad picture of life on Earth. Understanding the tree of life helps students compare cell...

prokaryotic cells

How Prokaryotes Survive Without a Nucleus

Prokaryotes are small unicellular organisms that live without a nucleus. They include the domains Archaea and Bacteria. Bacteria include common microbes such as Salmonella and E. coli, while Archaea include extremophiles that live in harsh places like volcanic springs. Prokaryotic cells still share several basic features with eukaryotic cells. They have a plasma membrane, cytoplasm, ribosomes, and genetic material in the form of single, circular DNA. Their cell parts float freely in the...

eukaryotic compartmentalization

How Organelles Keep Cells Working

Eukaryotic cells keep their organelles separate so each part can do a specific job. Organelles such as the nucleus and mitochondria are surrounded by membranes. These membranes are selectively permeable, which means they control what enters and leaves. That control creates small internal environments with conditions suited to each organelle. These controlled spaces help organelles work more efficiently. In animal cells, lysosomes keep an acidic environment that helps their enzymes digest...

eukaryotic evolution

How Eukaryotic Cells Became Complex

Eukaryotic cells became complex through a debated evolutionary path that likely involved endosymbiosis. The most accepted model is the endosymbiont theory, which explains how organelles such as mitochondria and chloroplasts may have entered an ancestral cell. Other ideas include the nucleus-first hypothesis, the mitochondria-first hypothesis, and the eukaryote-first hypothesis. The nucleus-first hypothesis says an ancestral prokaryote first formed a membrane around its DNA, creating the...

animal and plant cell structure

Plant vs Animal Cell Division and Specialization

Plant and animal cells differ in how they divide, organize into tissues, and specialize for different jobs. Both cell types divide by mitosis in non-gametic cells and by meiosis in gametic cells, but the details are not the same. These differences help explain how each cell type supports growth and reproduction. During cell division, animal cells use centrosomes to organize spindle fibers and separate chromosomes. Plant cells do not have centrosomes. Instead, they use a microtubule-organizing...

cytoplasm

Cytoplasm and the Cell’s Internal Support

The cytoplasm is the cell’s internal space that holds organelles and the cytoskeleton. It is suspended in the cytosol, an aqueous fluid made of water, ions, salts, and many organic molecules. This fluid helps keep the cell organized and supports many cellular activities. The cytoplasm is also where protein synthesis and protein folding take place. The watery cytosol helps proteins fold correctly. In a folded protein, hydrophobic amino acid side chains tend to stay buried in the core, while...

the nucleus

Nuclear DNA, Chromatin, and Nucleoli

The nucleus is a membrane-bound organelle that stores chromosomal DNA and helps control what proteins a eukaryotic cell makes. It acts as the cell’s control center. DNA in mitochondria and chloroplasts is different because it mainly supports functions specific to those organelles. Inside the nucleus, DNA is wrapped around proteins called histones. This DNA-protein complex is called chromatin. During interphase, when the cell is not dividing, chromatin stays loosely arranged so the DNA is easy...

the dna helix

How DNA Structure Was Discovered

DNA is the genetic material that passes traits from one generation to the next in organisms and most viruses. It is made of two strands of nucleotides that twist into a spring-like double helix. The shape is not perfectly even. It also has repeating grooves called the major groove and the minor groove. The major groove forms where the sugar-phosphate backbones are farther apart. This wider space gives DNA-binding proteins, including transcription factors, better access to the bases. The minor...

DNA to protein flow depends on RNA as the link between genetic information and the amino acids that build proteins. Early scientists knew that DNA stores the information for cell functions and that proteins carry out most of those functions. For a long time, they did not know how the code in DNA became a working protein. At first, many people thought one gene was changed directly into its protein. Two findings in eukaryotic cells challenged that idea. Protein production does not happen in the...

mutations

Mutations in DNA and Inherited Disease

Mutations are changes in the DNA sequence. They can happen on their own during DNA copying, or they can be caused by environmental factors. Scientists describe mutations in several ways, including whether they change the amino acid sequence of a protein, how much DNA they affect, and whether they occur in somatic cells or germline cells. Some mutations are point mutations. A point mutation changes a single nucleotide in DNA. Other mutations are chromosomal alterations, which change the number...

genome size and the evolution of new genes

genome-size-and-the-evolution-of-new-genes

Genome Size and Gene Evolution

Genome size and gene evolution are linked through changes in DNA sequence and genome structure. Some genes can arise from parts of the genome that were not coding before, while others come from changes to existing genes. These shifts help explain how new genetic material can appear over time. A genome is the full set of DNA in an organism. Its size can change as DNA is added, removed, or rearranged. The transcript highlights that genome size is not fixed, and that these changes can shape the...

gene families

Shared Origins of Gene Families

Gene families are groups of related genes that share a common origin. They form when genes are copied and then change over time. These related genes can be found within the same genome. The video also connects gene families to homologous genes and orthologous genes. Homologous genes are genes with a shared evolutionary origin. Orthologous genes are homologous genes found in different species. Gene families help show how these relationships are used to study evolution and related gene functions.

gene evolution - fast or slow?

Gene Evolution Rates and Selection

Gene evolution can happen at different rates, and natural selection helps shape those changes. Some genes change slowly because important DNA changes are removed over time. Other genes can change more quickly when different mutations are kept in a population. The rate of evolution depends on how a gene is used and how strongly it is affected by selection. Genes with essential jobs often stay more similar across species. Genes under weaker pressure may show more variation and may evolve faster.<br...

types of genetic transfer between organisms

types-of-genetic-transfer-between-organisms

Vertical and Horizontal Gene Transfer

Genetic transfer between organisms happens in two main ways: vertical gene transfer and horizontal gene transfer. These two routes explain how hereditary material moves from one generation to the next or between organisms that are not parent and offspring. Vertical gene transfer passes genes from parent to offspring during reproduction. This is the usual way genetic information is inherited in living things. Horizontal gene transfer moves genetic material between organisms outside of...

key terms and concepts

Explore how RNA connects DNA to proteins, how codons work, and why the genetic code matters in mutation protection and recombinant insulin production.

DNA to Protein: RNA’s Role | JoVE K12

cell biology

JoVE Core Cell Biology illustrates complex cellular processes in easy-to-understand yet comprehensive animated video lessons. This collection focuses on the essential components and functions of cells, including organelles and membranes, cellular transport, and cell energetics. It is complemented by scientist-in-action videos that demonstrate the application of cell biology in real-world research experiments.

Pennsylvania State Academic Standards

Life Science

Inheritance and Variation of Traits

3.1.9-12.P

3.1.9-12.Q

Structure and Function

3.1.9-12.A

Louisiana Student Standards for Science

High School

Life Sciences

From Molecules To Organisms: Structures And Processes

HS-LS1-1

heredity-inheritance-and-variation-of-traits

Heredity: Inheritance And Variation Of Traits

HS-LS3-1

Biological Evolution: Unity And Diversity

HS-LS4-1

ohios-learning-standards-and-model-curriculum

Ohio’s Learning Standards and Model Curriculum

Heredity

Cellular genetics

Mutations

Tennessee Academic Standards

From Molecules to Organisms: Structures and Processes

BIO1.LS1.3

Virginia  Standards of Learning

HIgh School

BIO.2

BIO.2.d

BIO.5

BIO.5.a

BIO.5.b

Minnesota Academic Standards in Science

3.1.1 9L.3.1.1.4

Florida Department of Education

SC.912.L.16

SC.912.L.16.9

south-carolina-college-and-career-ready-science-standards

South Carolina College and Career Ready Science Standards

Heredity: Inheritance and Variation of Traits

B-LS3-1.

Georgia Standards of Excellence

SB6.c

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introduction-to-mechanisms-of-enzyme-catalysis

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Endoplasmic Reticulum

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DNA to Protein: RNA’s Role

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