Name: cell cycle regulators that control division
Uploaded: 2023-06-23T15:38:45.000Z
Duration: 1 min 27 s
Channel: JoVE

K12 Standards

Next Generation Science Standards

High School

Life Science

from-molecules-to-organisms-structures-and-processes

From Molecules to Organisms: Structures and Processes

HS-LS1-4

molecular-factors-affecting-cell-division

Molecular Factors Affecting Cell Division

يتم التحكم في انقسام الخلية ، أو المرحلة الانقسامية لدورة الخلية ، عن طريق محفزات كيميائية خارجية ، مثل عوامل النمو والهرمونات ، والعوامل الداخلية ، مثل منظمات دورة الخلية.
يتم تنظيم دورة الخلية بواسطة مجموعة من البروتينات تسمى الأعاصير والكينازات المعتمدة على السيكلين أو Cdks. تتقلب تركيزات الأعاصير المختلفة مع مراحل دورة الخلية المختلفة.
عندما تقترب الخلية من نهاية المرحلة G2 ، يرتفع مستوى cyclin B. عند التركيزات العالية ، يشكل cyclin B مركبا مع Cdk1 يسمى عامل تعزيز المرحلة M أو MPF.
يتم تنظيم نشاط MPF عن طريق أحداث الفسفرة وإزالة الفسفرة التي تحدد ما إذا كانت الخلية تخضع للانقسام أم لا.
حتى نهاية G2 ، يقوم Wee1 kinase بفسفرة بقايا التيروزين على MPF ويبقيها غير نشطة. هذا يمنع دخول دورة الخلية ويوقف الخلية في المرحلة G2 / M.
بمجرد أن يقوم Cdc25 بإزالة الفسفرة MPF ، يقوم كيناز المنشط ب Cdk بفسفرة ثريونين محفوظ على MPF وينشطه.
الآن تخضع الخلايا للانقسام وتنتج خليتين ابنتيتين.

العوامل الجزيئية التي تؤثر على انقسام الخلايا

<div style="direction:rtl">عدة عوامل خارجية وداخلية تؤثر على بدء الانقسام الخلوي وتثبيطه. على سبيل المثال، يعزز موت الخلايا المجاورة أو إفراز هرمون النمو البشري (hGH) تقسيم الخلية. وعلى العكس من ذلك، يمكن أن يمنع نقص hGH أو زحف الخلايا انقسام الخلايا. عدة بروتينات تعمل كمنظمات داخلية لضمان استكمال كل مرحلة من دورة الخلية بدقة قبل المضي إلى المرحلة التالية. قد تعمل جزيئات المنظم مباشرة أو تؤثر على نشاط أو إنتاج بروتينات منظمة أخرى. تعمل هذه الجزيئات المنظمة إما على تعزيز تقدم الخلية إلى المرحلة التالية (تنظيم إيجابي) أو إيقاف الدورة (تنظيم سلبي). تشمل جزيئات المنظم الإيجابي السيكلينات والسيكلين كينازات القابلة للتوجيه (Cdks)، التي تعد ضرورية لتقدم دورة الخلية. في حين يبقى مستوى الـ Cdks ثابتًا، فإن مستويات أربع سيكلينات (سيكلين D و E و A و B) تتذبذب خلال مراحل الدورة الخلوية المختلفة. عند الارتباط بشكل وثيق مع Cdk، يتم تشغيل السيكلين للتنشيط. ترتفع مستويات السيكلين D في مرحلة G1 وتبقى مرتفعة طوال الدورة وتنخفض في مرحلة M. تتصاعد مستويات السيكلين E عند تقاطع مرحلة G1-S، بينما تكون مستويات السيكلين A مرتفعة خلال مراحل S و G2. مع اقتراب الخلية من مرحلة M، ترتفع مستويات السيكلين B وتعزز انقسام الخلية. تشمل جزيئات المنظم السلبي البروتين الورمي الوراثي (Rb)، و p53، و p21، والتي تتحكم في دورة الخلية. على سبيل المثال، عندما يكتشف p53 تلف الحمض النووي، يتم استدعاء إنزيمات إصلاح الحمض النووي لتصحيح التلف. إذا بقي الحمض النووي غير مصلح، يبدأ p53 في تفعيل آلية الموت الخلوي المبرمج ويمنع تضاعف الكروموسومات التالفة. يمكن أيضًا أن يؤدي زيادة مستوى p53 في الخلية إلى ترجمة p21. يرتبط p21 بمجمع Cdk/cyclin ويعرقل تقدم الدورة. يمنع تراكم p53 و p21 الخلايا من المضي قدمًا إلى تخليق الحمض النووي (مرحلة S). هذا النص مقتبس م <a href="https://openstax.org/books/biology-2e/pages/10-3-control-of-the-cell-cycle">Openstax, Anatomy and Physiology 2e, Section 10.3: Control of the Cell Cycle</a></div>

تؤثر العديد من العوامل الخارجية والداخلية على بدء وتثبيط انقسام الخلايا. على سبيل المثال ، موت الخلايا المجاورة أو إطلاق ...

Education

JoVE Core

Anatomy and Physiology

التشريح وعلم وظائف الأعضاء

Unit 1

الوحدة الأولى

Essential Cellular Processes

العمليات الخلوية الأساسية

KEY TERMS AND CONCEPTS

المصطلحات والمفاهيم الأساسية

cell cycle regulators that control division

Cell division is controlled by outside signals and by internal cell cycle regulators. Nearby cell death can encourage division, and human growth hormone (hGH) can also promote it. In contrast, too little hGH or crowded cells can slow or stop division.

Inside the cell, regulator molecules help each stage finish correctly before the next stage begins. Some regulators act directly on the cycle, while others affect the activity or production of other regulatory proteins. These molecules can either push the cell forward, which is positive regulation, or stop the cycle, which is negative regulation.

The main positive regulators are cyclins and cyclin-dependent kinases, or Cdks. Cdks stay at a constant level, while cyclin levels rise and fall during the cell cycle. The four cyclins are cyclin D, cyclin E, cyclin A, and cyclin B. When cyclins bind tightly to Cdks, the complex becomes active after phosphorylation.

Each cyclin acts at a different point in the cycle. Cyclin D rises in G1, stays high through most of the cycle, and drops in M phase. Cyclin E peaks at the G1-S transition. Cyclin A is high during S and G2, and cyclin B rises as the cell nears M phase and helps drive cell division.

Negative regulators help prevent damaged or uncontrolled division. These include retinoblastoma protein, or Rb, p53, and p21. When p53 detects DNA damage, it recruits DNA repair enzymes. If the damage is not repaired, p53 can trigger apoptosis, or cell death, and prevent damaged chromosomes from being copied.

p53 can also increase p21 synthesis. The p21 protein binds to the Cdk/cyclin complex and blocks cycle progression. Together, p53 and p21 can stop the cell from entering DNA synthesis, which is the S phase.

Cell Cycle Regulators That Control Division

cell-cycle-regulators-that-control-division

the central dogma

Central Dogma: DNA to Protein

The central dogma explains how genetic information flows in cells from DNA to RNA to protein. It is a core idea in molecular biology and helps show how genes influence cell function. DNA stores the instructions. During transcription, a cell copies a gene into RNA, which is a related nucleic acid. That RNA message can then be used in translation to build a protein. Proteins carry out many jobs in cells and help determine traits. The central dogma links the genetic code in DNA to the molecules...

replication in eukaryotes

Eukaryotic DNA Copying at the Replication Fork

Eukaryotic DNA copying happens at replication forks, where the two DNA strands separate and new strands are built. This process lets a cell make an exact copy of its genetic material before it divides. The transcript explains that eukaryotic replication follows the same basic steps seen in other DNA replication systems, but it takes place in cells with a nucleus. The replication machinery works on each separated strand as a template, so the new DNA matches the original sequence. This topic is...

types of rna

RNA Types in Gene Expression

RNA types play different roles in gene expression. RNA, or ribonucleic acid, helps carry and use genetic information in cells. The main types discussed here are messenger RNA, ribosomal RNA, and transfer RNA. Messenger RNA, or mRNA, carries the genetic code from DNA to the ribosome. The ribosome is the site where proteins are made. Ribosomal RNA, or rRNA, is a key part of the ribosome itself. Transfer RNA, or tRNA, brings the correct amino acids to the ribosome during protein building. These...

transcription

Transcription and RNA Synthesis

Transcription is the process of making RNA from a DNA template. It is a key step in gene expression, because cells use the DNA sequence to build an RNA copy that can carry the message forward. During transcription, RNA polymerase binds to DNA and reads one strand as the template. The enzyme links RNA nucleotides together in the correct order to form a growing RNA molecule. This copying step does not make DNA; it produces RNA. The transcript focuses on the central idea of transcription as DNA...

translation

Translation: mRNA to Protein

Translation is the step in gene expression where ribosomes use messenger RNA, or mRNA, to build a protein. The mRNA sequence carries the instructions copied from DNA. During translation, those instructions are read in order so the cell can make a specific chain of amino acids. This process depends on the ribosome and transfer RNA, or tRNA. The ribosome reads the mRNA, and tRNA brings the matching amino acids. As the chain grows, the amino acids are linked together to form a polypeptide, which...

regulation of expression at multiple steps

regulation-of-expression-at-multiple-steps

How Cells Control Gene Expression

Cells control gene expression at several stages, from making RNA to building protein. These checkpoints include transcription, RNA processing, RNA localization, and translation. Together, they help decide when a gene is used and whether a protein is made. Transcription is controlled by regulatory proteins. Transcription factors, activators, and repressors can start or slow the transcription of genes. After transcription, the cell makes a precursor RNA, also called pre-mRNA. Pre-mRNA must be...

what is the cell cycle?

Cell Cycle Stages in Cell Growth

The cell cycle is the process that controls cell growth and division. It explains how one cell makes two new cells. This process helps cells grow and reproduce.

interphase

Interphase and Cell Growth

Interphase is the part of the cell cycle when a cell grows and prepares to divide. It is a major stage of the cell cycle, and it comes before cell division begins. During interphase, the cell carries out its normal functions. It also copies its DNA so each new cell can receive a full set of genetic material. The cell may also build up the materials it needs for division. Interphase is not a single step. It includes phases such as G1, S, and G2, which help the cell grow, copy DNA, and get...

mitosis and cytokinesis

Cell Division: Mitosis and Cytokinesis

Cell division depends on mitosis and cytokinesis. Mitosis is the stage when the cell’s nucleus divides and the copied chromosomes are separated into two sets. Cytokinesis is the step that follows and splits the cell into two daughter cells. These two processes work together to make sure each new cell receives genetic material and its own cytoplasm. Mitosis keeps the chromosome sets organized, while cytokinesis finishes the division of the whole cell. Together, they create two separate cells...

the cell cycle control system

Cell Cycle Checkpoints and Cyclin Control

The cell cycle is controlled by checkpoints that help a cell move from one phase to the next and begin mitosis. This control system uses internal regulatory molecules and outside signals to send stop or advance instructions. It makes sure each step is finished before the cell moves forward. Cyclins and cyclin-dependent kinases, or Cdks, are the main regulators of the cell cycle. They act during the G1, G2, and M phases. These regulators work at specific checkpoints to keep cell division...

molecular factors affecting cell division

Cell division is controlled by outside signals and by internal cell cycle regulators. Nearby cell death can encourage division, and human growth hormone (hGH) can also promote it. In contrast, too little hGH or crowded cells can slow or stop division. Inside the cell, regulator molecules help each stage finish correctly before the next stage begins. Some regulators act directly on the cycle, while others affect the activity or production of other regulatory proteins. These molecules can either...

what is meiosis?

Meiosis and the Formation of Gametes

Meiosis is the cell division process that forms gametes, or sex cells. It reduces the chromosome number so offspring can inherit the correct amount of genetic material. This process includes two successive divisions. First, one cell divides, and then the resulting cells divide again. These steps separate the genetic material in a controlled way. Meiosis helps explain how sexual reproduction passes traits from one generation to the next. It is a key topic in high school biology because it...

overview of cell signaling

Cell Signaling Pathways and Responses

Cell signaling pathways and responses help cells communicate and react to changes. Cells send signals to one another, and those signals can trigger a specific response in the target cell. A signal usually begins when a signaling molecule reaches a cell with the right receptor, which is a protein that receives the message. The receptor helps the cell recognize the signal and start the communication process. Inside the cell, the message can move through a signaling pathway. This pathway passes...

types of signaling molecules

Chemical Messengers in Cell Signaling

Chemical messengers help cells communicate during signaling. These signaling molecules carry information from one cell to another and guide how cells respond. Some signaling molecules are gases, while others are proteins or peptides. Small lipids can also act as signals. In addition, cells may use steroids, amino acids, and even ions as signaling molecules. Each type of signaling molecule has different properties and works in a different way. Together, these molecules let cells send specific...

g protein-coupled receptors

G Protein-coupled Receptor Signaling

G protein-coupled receptors are a major class of cell-surface receptors. They help cells detect signals outside the cell and pass that information inward. These receptors are important in many kinds of cell communication. When a signal binds to a G protein-coupled receptor, the receptor changes shape. That change activates a G protein inside the cell. The activated G protein can then start a signaling pathway. This signaling system includes the receptor, the G protein, and the downstream...

cellular differentiation

From Stem Cell to Specialized Cells

Cellular differentiation turns unspecialized cells into specialized cells with specific jobs. This process helps a complex organism, such as a human, develop from a single fertilized egg into a body with many cell types. Nerve cells, muscle cells, and epithelial cells are examples of the final cell types that appear during development. A zygote is the first cell after fertilization. It is a totipotent stem cell, which means it has very high differentiation potential and can form all cell types...

key terms and concepts

Learn how external signals, cyclins, Cdks, p53, and p21 control cell division and help cells decide when to divide or stop.

Cell Cycle Regulators That Control Division | JoVE K12

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Develop and use a model to illustrate the hierarchical organization of interacting systems that provide specific functions within multicellular organisms. [Clarification Statement: Emphasis is on functions at the organism system level such as nutrient uptake, water delivery, and organism movement in response to neural stimuli. An example of an interacting system could be an artery depending on the proper function of elastic tissue and smooth muscle to regulate and deliver the proper amount of blood within the circulatory system.] [Assessment Boundary: Assessment does not include interactions and functions at the molecular or chemical reaction level.]

HS-LS1-2

Cell Cycle Regulators That Control Division

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