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Mass defect is the difference between the calculated sum of individual particle masses and the experimentally measured atomic mass. In helium-4, this difference is 0.0305 atomic mass units. The mass defect occurs because mass converts to energy during nucleus formation, as described by Einstein's mass-energy equivalence equation E = mc².

Nuclear binding energy is calculated by converting the mass defect to kilograms and applying Einstein's equation E = mc², where c is the speed of light. For helium-4, the mass defect of 0.0305 grams per mole converts to 3.05 × 10⁻⁵ kilograms per mole, yielding a binding energy of 2.74 terajoules per mole.

Binding energy per nucleon measures the average energy holding each nucleon in the nucleus and indicates relative nuclear stability. Elements with mass numbers between 40 and 100 have the highest binding energy per nucleon, with iron-56 being most stable. Higher binding energy per nucleon correlates with greater nuclear stability.

Electronvolts (eV) are convenient units for nuclear binding energy because they represent the energy scale of nuclear processes. One electronvolt equals 1.602 × 10⁻¹⁹ joules. Helium-4's binding energy of 28.4 megaelectronvolts per nucleus is more practical to express in eV than in joules.

Heavy nuclei achieve stability through nuclear fission, fragmenting into midsize nuclei in an exothermic process. Lighter nuclei achieve stability through nuclear fusion, combining to form larger nuclei. Both processes release energy because midsize nuclei have the highest binding energy per nucleon.

Nuclear reactions convert mass directly into energy through Einstein's mass-energy equivalence, E = mc². The energy changes in nuclear reactions are vastly greater than in chemical reactions because even tiny mass changes produce enormous energy. This principle explains why nuclear binding energy is so substantial compared to chemical bond energies.

Binding energy per nucleus is calculated by dividing the molar binding energy by Avogadro's number (6.022 × 10²³). For helium-4, the molar binding energy of 2.74 terajoules per mole divided by Avogadro's number yields 4.55 picojoules per nucleus, or 28.4 megaelectronvolts per nucleus.