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RNA consists of a ribose sugar backbone, phosphate groups linking nucleotides, and nitrogenous bases (adenine, guanine, cytosine, and uracil). The sugar-phosphate backbone forms the structural framework, while bases provide genetic information. Unlike DNA, RNA contains ribose instead of deoxyribose and uses uracil instead of thymine.

RNA and DNA differ in three key ways: RNA contains ribose sugar while DNA contains deoxyribose; RNA uses uracil as a base while DNA uses thymine; and RNA is typically single-stranded while DNA is double-stranded. These structural differences affect their stability, function, and how they interact with cellular machinery.

RNA is synthesized during transcription as a complementary copy of DNA. RNA polymerase reads the DNA template strand and assembles RNA nucleotides in the 5' to 3' direction. The resulting RNA molecule carries genetic information from DNA to the ribosome, where it directs protein synthesis.

The three main RNA types are messenger RNA (mRNA), which carries genetic instructions; ribosomal RNA (rRNA), which forms part of the ribosome; and transfer RNA (tRNA), which delivers amino acids during translation. Each type has distinct structure and function in gene expression and protein synthesis.

Eukaryotic mRNA undergoes three main processing steps: 5' capping, 3' polyadenylation, and splicing. The 5' cap and 3' poly-A tail protect mRNA and aid translation, while splicing removes introns and joins exons. These modifications occur co-transcriptionally and are essential for mRNA stability and translation efficiency.

RNA secondary structure, formed by intramolecular base pairing, creates functional elements like hairpins and loops. These structures are critical for RNA stability, recognition by proteins, and catalytic activity in some RNAs. Secondary structure also influences how RNA interacts with ribosomes and other cellular machinery during translation.

RNA stability depends on structural features including the 5' cap and 3' poly-A tail, which protect against degradation. Sequence composition, secondary structure, and cellular location also affect stability. mRNA typically has a shorter half-life than rRNA or tRNA, allowing cells to regulate gene expression by controlling mRNA degradation rates.