non-chromatographic-purification-recombinant-elastin-like

Non-chromatographic Purification of Recombinant Elastin-like Polypeptides and their Fusions with Peptides and Proteins from <em>Escherichia coli</em>

Elastin-like polypeptides are repetitive biopolymers that exhibit a lower critical solution temperature phase transition behavior, existing as soluble ...

Duke University

As beta1 and beta2 integrins were previously found to mediate adhesion during IL-4-induced foreign body giant cell (FBGC) formation, we pursued the identities of the alpha integrin partners of these adhesion receptors using our in vitro system of human monocyte-derived macrophage fusion. Immunoprecipitation with beta1 and immunoblotting reveal the presence of alpha5 and alphaV, as well as alpha2 and alpha3. alphaM and alphaX immunoprecipitate with beta2 but not with beta1. Immunocytochemistry coupled with confocal microscopy indicates that alpha5 and alphaX are poorly expressed on day 0. However, following the induction of fusion by IL-4 on day 3, they are each readily detectable in fusing macrophages/FBGC on day 7. In contrast, alphaM and alphaV are present throughout the culture period, with very strong alphaM expression on day 7. We also demonstrate expression and colocalization of alpha3, alpha5, or alphaV with beta1 on fusing macrophages/FBGC at this time point as well as strong colocalization of alphaM and alphaX with beta2 in FBGC and at fusion interfaces. Therefore, IL-4-induced FBGC are characterized by the expression of alphaMbeta2, alphaXbeta2, alpha5beta1, alphaVbeta1, alpha2beta1, and alpha3beta1, which indicates potential interactions with fragments of complement C3, fibrin(ogen), fibronectin, Factor X, and vitronectin, and possibly with certain collagens, laminin, and thrombospondin at sites of biomaterial implantation.

alpha subunit partners to beta1 and beta2 integrins during IL-4-induced foreign body giant cell formation.

Synthetic biomaterials are considered to be nonimmunogenic. Therefore, the role that adaptive immunity may play in the host response to implanted synthetic biomaterials has not been extensively studied. Cardinal features of adaptive immunity include specificity and T cell responses, which are greater and more effective with upregulation of activation receptors upon rechallenge. We compared the primary and secondary in vivo host response to three synthetic biomaterials: Elasthane 80A, silicone rubber, and polyethylene terephthalate using a cage implant model in Sprague Dawley rats. The synthetic biomedical polymers were subcutaneously implanted in cages for 14 days. Following explantation of the cages and a 2 week healing period, rats were implanted with cages containing the biomedical polymers for an additional 2 weeks. The cellular exudates within the cages were analyzed 4, 7, and 14 days post primary and secondary implantation by flow cytometry for the following cell types: T cells (inclusive of CD8(+), CD4(+), and CD4(+)/CD25(+) subsets), B cells, granulocytes, and macrophages. At day 14 following secondary implantation, there was an increase in T cells, granulocytes, and macrophages in the exudates when compared with primary implantation for all groups inclusive of the empty cage control. However, CD4(+)/CD8(+) ratios, the percentage of CD4(+)CD25(+) T cells, and the macrophage surface adhesion/fusion did not vary significantly upon secondary implantation. Despite a quantitative increase in T cells following secondary biomaterial exposure, T cell subset distribution did not change, indicating nonspecific recruitment rather than an adaptive immune response.

T cell subset distributions following primary and secondary implantation at subcutaneous biomaterial implant sites.

An in vitro system of interleukin (IL)-4-induced foreign body giant cell (FBGC) formation was utilized to define the adhesion protein substrate(s) that promotes this aspect of the foreign body reaction on biomedical polymers. Human monocytes were cultured on cell culture polystyrene surfaces that had been pre-adsorbed with a synthetic arginine-glycine-aspartate peptide previously found to support optimal FBGC formation, or with various concentrations of potential physiological protein substrates, i.e. complement C3bi, collagen types I or IV, fibrinogen, plasma fibronectin, fibroblast fibronectin, laminin, thrombospondin, vitronectin, or von Willebrand factor. Cultures were evaluated on days 0 (1.5 h), 3, and 7 by May-Grünwald/Giemsa staining. Initial monocyte adhesion occurred on all adsorbed proteins. However, by day 7 of culture, only vitronectin was striking in its ability to support significant macrophage adhesion, development, and fusion leading to FBGC formation. Vitronectin supported high degrees of FBGC formation at an absorption concentration between 5 and 25 microg/mL. These findings suggest that adsorbed vitronectin is critical in the collective events that support and promote FBGC formation on biomedical polymers, and that the propensity for vitronectin adsorption may underlie the material surface chemistry dependency of FBGC formation.

Vitronectin is a critical protein adhesion substrate for IL-4-induced foreign body giant cell formation.

Multinucleated giant cells are a classic cellular feature of chronic inflammation, although the mechanism of macrophage fusion leading to their formation is not well understood. Here, we investigate the participation of protein kinase C (PKC) in the interleukin (IL)-4-induced fusion of human monocyte-derived macrophages and foreign body giant cell (FBGC) formation in vitro. The PKC inhibitors H-7 and calphostin C attenuated macrophage fusion, whereas H-8, which is more selective for PKA and PKG, did not. Macrophage fusion was also prevented by the phospholipase C inhibitor, Et-18-OCH(3), the PKC isoform inhibitors GO6983 or rottlerin and by peptide inhibitors for PKC (20-28), PKCbeta, or PKCzeta but not by HBDDE or peptide inhibitors for PKCvarepsilon or PKA. In cultures of fusing macrophages/FBGC, we detected only PKCalpha, beta, delta, and zeta by immunoprecipitation and immunoblotting, and we also observed strong expression of these isoforms by immunocytochemistry. Our collective results suggest that the gamma, epsilon, eta, mu, theta, or iota PKC isoforms are not required in the mechanism of IL-4-induced macrophage fusion; whether PKCalpha is required is unclear. However, new evidence is provided that FBGC formation is supported by PKCbeta, PKCdelta, and PKCzeta in combined diacylglycerol-dependent (PKCbeta and PKCdelta) and -independent (PKCzeta) signaling pathways.

Foreign body-type multinucleated giant cell formation requires protein kinase C beta, delta, and zeta.

The role(s) of T lymphocytes in the foreign body response has not been thoroughly elucidated. Lymphocytes are known to augment macrophage adhesion and fusion in vitro. Furthermore, T lymphocytes are a possible source of the cytokines, IL-4 and IL-13, which induce macrophage fusion. In this study, we used BALB/c mice and BALB/c (nu/nu) nude mice to investigate foreign body giant cell (FBGC) formation in a T-cell-deficient setting. Mice were implanted with Elasthane 80A (PEU), silicone rubber (SR), or poly(ethylene terephthalate) (PET) for 7, 14, or 21 days using the cage implant system. Exudate cells and IL-4 and IL-13 levels in exudate supernatants were analyzed by flow cytometry and a multiplex immunoassay, respectively, at Days 7, 14, and 21. Macrophage adhesion and fusion on material surfaces were analyzed using optical microscopy. T-cell-deficient mice had lower total leukocyte concentrations at the biomaterial implant site at all time points. Adherent cell density was comparable between normal and T-cell-deficient mice except in the PEU group at Day 21. However, percent fusion, average nuclei per FBGC, and FBGC morphology were comparable between normal and T-cell-deficient mice. IL-4 was not detected in any sample, but IL-13 levels were also comparable between normal and T-cell-deficient mice indicating Th2-polarized T-cells are not the sole source of this cytokine. We have shown that there are pathways that do not require thymus-matured T lymphocytes, which lead to a normal foreign body response to biomaterials in a murine model.

The foreign body reaction in T-cell-deficient mice.

Artificial repetitive polypeptides have grown in popularity as a bioinspired alternative to synthetic polymers. The genetically encoded synthesis, monodispersity, potential lack of toxicity, and biocompatibility are attractive features of these biopolymers for biological applications. Elastin-like polypeptides (ELPs) are one such class of biopolymers that are of particular interest because of their "smart"-stimuli responsive-properties. Herein, we discuss the genetically encoded design and recombinant synthesis of ELPs that enable precise control of their physicochemical properties and which have led to a wide range of biomedical applications of these biopolymers in the last decade.

Elastin-like polypeptides: biomedical applications of tunable biopolymers.

Nanoparticles and macromolecular carriers have been widely used to increase the efficacy of chemotherapeutics, largely through passive accumulation provided by the enhanced permeability and retention effect. Stimulus-responsive peptide and polymer vehicles can further enhance the efficacy of antitumor therapeutics compared with the administration of free drug by three mechanisms: increasing the overall accumulation within solid tumors; providing a homogeneous spatial distribution in tumor tissues; and increasing the intracellular localization of anticancer therapeutics. This article highlights recent developments in 'smart' - stimulus-responsive - peptide, polymer and lipid drug carriers designed to enhance the localization and efficacy of therapeutic payloads as compared with free drug.

Stimulus-responsive macromolecules and nanoparticles for cancer drug delivery.

Elastin-like polypeptides (ELPs) are a class of stimulus-responsive biopolymers whose physicochemical properties and biocompatibility are particularly suitable for in vivo applications, such as drug delivery and tissue engineering. The lower critical solution temperature (LCST) behavior of ELPs allows them to be utilized as soluble macromolecules below their LCST, or as self-assembled nanoscale particles such as micelles, micron-scale coacervates, or viscous gels above their LCST, depending on the ELP architecture. As each ELP sequence is specified at its genetic level, functionalization of an ELP with peptides and proteins is simple to accomplish by the fusion of a gene encoding an ELP with that of the peptide or protein of interest. Protein ELP fusions, where the appended protein serves a therapeutic or targeting function, are suitable for applications in which the ELP can improve the systemic pharmacokinetics and biodistribution of the protein, or can be used as an injectable depot for sustained, local protein delivery. Here we describe considerations in the design of therapeutic protein ELP fusions and provide details of their gene design, expression, and purification.

Fusions of elastin-like polypeptides to pharmaceutical proteins.

This paper reports the design, physicochemical characterization and in vitro cytotoxicity of a thermally responsive chimeric polypeptide (CP), derived from an elastin-like polypeptide (ELP). The CP self-assembles into ~40 nm diameter nanoparticles upon conjugation of multiple copies of doxorubicin (Dox), and displays a nanoparticle-to-aggregate phase transition between 39 and 42 °C in media, a temperature range suitable for mild hyperthermia of solid tumors. The CP-Dox nanoparticle is stable upon dilution to low micromolar concentrations, and is cytotoxic at both 37 and 42 °C. A thermally responsive nanoparticle formulation of Dox may prove to be broadly useful in hyperthermia targeted chemotherapy of a variety of solid tumors.

Doxorubicin-conjugated chimeric polypeptide nanoparticles that respond to mild hyperthermia.

We report herein the unexpected temperature triggered self-assembly of proteins fused to thermally responsive elastin-like polypeptides (ELPs) into spherical micelles. A set of six ELP block copolymers (ELP(BC)) differing in hydrophilic and hydrophobic block lengths were genetically fused to two single domain proteins, thioredoxin (Trx) and a fibronectin type III domain (Fn3) that binds the α(v)β(3) integrin. The self-assembly of these protein-ELP(BC) fusions as a function of temperature was investigated by UV spectroscopy, light scattering, and cryo-TEM. Self-assembly of the ELP(BC) was unexpectedly retained upon fusion to the two proteins, resulting in the formation of spherical micelles with a hydrodynamic radius that ranged from 24 to 37 nm, depending on the protein and ELP(BC). Cryo-TEM images confirmed the formation of spherical particles with a size that was consistent with that measured by light scattering. The bioactivity of Fn3 was retained when presented by the ELP(BC) micelles, as indicated by the enhanced uptake of the Fn3-decorated ELP(BC) micelles in comparison to the unimer by cells that overexpress the α(v)β(3) integrin. The fusion of single domain proteins to ELP(BC)s may provide a ubiquitous platform for the multivalent presentation of proteins.

Unexpected multivalent display of proteins by temperature triggered self-assembly of elastin-like polypeptide block copolymers.

Cell-penetrating peptides (CPPs) are a class of molecules that enable efficient internalization of a wide variety of cargo in diverse cell types, making them desirable for delivery of anticancer drugs to solid tumors. For CPPs to be useful, it is important to be able to turn their function on in response to an external trigger that can be spatially localized in vivo. Here we describe an approach to turning on CPP function by modulation of the local density of arginine (Arg) residues by temperature-triggered micelle assembly of diblock copolymer elastin-like polypeptides (ELP(BC)s). A greater than 8-fold increase in cellular uptake occurs when Arg residues are presented on the corona of ELP(BC) micelles, as compared to the same ELP(BC) at a temperature in which it is a soluble unimer. This approach is the first to demonstrate digital 'off-on' control of CPP activity by an extrinsic thermal trigger in a clinically relevant temperature range by modulation of the interfacial density of Arg residues on the exterior of a nanoparticle.

Digital switching of local arginine density in a genetically encoded self-assembled polypeptide nanoparticle controls cellular uptake.

Targeted delivery of cancer therapeutics and imaging agents aims to enhance the accumulation of these molecules in a solid tumor while avoiding uptake in healthy tissues. Tumor-specific accumulation has been pursued with passive targeting by the enhanced permeability and retention effect, as well as with active targeting strategies. Active targeting is achieved by functionalization of carriers to allow specific interactions between the carrier and the tumor environment. Functionalization of carriers with ligands that specifically interact with overexpressed receptors on cancer cells represents a classic approach to active tumor targeting. Cell-penetrating peptides (CPPs) provide a non-specific and receptor-independent mechanism to enhance cellular uptake that offers an exciting alternative to traditional active targeting approaches. While the non-specificity of CPP-mediated internalization has the intriguing potential to make this approach applicable to a wide range of tumor types, their promiscuity is, however, a significant barrier to their clinical utility for systemically administered applications. Many approaches have been investigated to selectively turn on the function of systemically delivered CPP-functionalized carriers specifically in tumors to achieve targeted delivery of cancer therapeutics and imaging agents.

Harnessing the power of cell-penetrating peptides: activatable carriers for targeting systemic delivery of cancer therapeutics and imaging agents.

Internalization into cancer cells is a significant challenge in the delivery of many anticancer therapeutics. Drug carriers can address this challenge by facilitating cellular uptake of cytotoxic cargo in the tumor, while preventing cellular uptake in healthy tissues. Here we describe an extrinsically controlled drug carrier, a nanopeptifier, that amplifies cellular uptake by modulating the activity of cell-penetrating peptides with thermally toggled self-assembly of a genetically encoded polypeptide nanoparticle. When appended with a proapoptotic peptide, the nanopeptifier creates a cytotoxic switch, inducing apoptosis only in its self-assembled state. The nanopeptifier provides a new approach to tune the cellular uptake and activity of anticancer therapeutics by an extrinsic thermal trigger.

Controlled apoptosis by a thermally toggled nanoscale amplifier of cellular uptake.

This paper demonstrates the first example of targeting a solid tumor that is externally heated to 42 °C by "heat seeking" drug-loaded polypeptide nanoparticles. These nanoparticles consist of a thermally responsive elastin-like polypeptide (ELP) conjugated to multiple copies of a hydrophobic cancer drug. To rationally design drug-loaded nanoparticles that exhibit thermal responsiveness in the narrow temperature range between 37 and 42 °C, an analytical model was developed that relates ELP composition and chain length to the nanoparticle phase transition temperature. Suitable candidates were designed based on the predictions of the model and tested in vivo by intravital confocal fluorescence microscopy of solid tumors, which revealed that the nanoparticles aggregate in the vasculature of tumors heated to 42 °C and that the aggregation is reversible as the temperature reverts to 37 °C. Biodistribution studies showed that the most effective strategy to target the nanoparticles to tumors is to thermally cycle the tumors between 37 and 42 °C. These nanoparticles set the stage for the targeted delivery of a range of cancer chemotherapeutics by externally applied mild hyperthermia of solid tumors.

Article	Year
alpha subunit partners to beta1 and beta2 integrins during IL-4-induced foreign body giant cell formation. Journal of biomedical materials research. Part A\| PubMed ID: 17311314	2007
T cell subset distributions following primary and secondary implantation at subcutaneous biomaterial implant sites. Journal of biomedical materials research. Part A\| PubMed ID: 17729264	2008
Vitronectin is a critical protein adhesion substrate for IL-4-induced foreign body giant cell formation. Journal of biomedical materials research. Part A\| PubMed ID: 17994558	2008
Foreign body-type multinucleated giant cell formation requires protein kinase C beta, delta, and zeta. Experimental and molecular pathology\| PubMed ID: 18067888	2008
The foreign body reaction in T-cell-deficient mice. Journal of biomedical materials research. Part A\| PubMed ID: 18491378	2009
Elastin-like polypeptides: biomedical applications of tunable biopolymers. Biopolymers\| PubMed ID: 20091871	2010
Stimulus-responsive macromolecules and nanoparticles for cancer drug delivery. Nanomedicine (London, England)\| PubMed ID: 20662649	2010
Fusions of elastin-like polypeptides to pharmaceutical proteins. Methods in enzymology\| PubMed ID: 22208987	2012
Doxorubicin-conjugated chimeric polypeptide nanoparticles that respond to mild hyperthermia. Journal of controlled release : official journal of the Controlled Release Society\| PubMed ID: 22421424	2012
Unexpected multivalent display of proteins by temperature triggered self-assembly of elastin-like polypeptide block copolymers. Biomacromolecules\| PubMed ID: 22515311	2012
Digital switching of local arginine density in a genetically encoded self-assembled polypeptide nanoparticle controls cellular uptake. Nano letters\| PubMed ID: 22625178	2012
Harnessing the power of cell-penetrating peptides: activatable carriers for targeting systemic delivery of cancer therapeutics and imaging agents. Wiley interdisciplinary reviews. Nanomedicine and nanobiotechnology\| PubMed ID: 22977001	2013
Controlled apoptosis by a thermally toggled nanoscale amplifier of cellular uptake. Nano letters\| PubMed ID: 24611762	2014
Rational design of "heat seeking" drug loaded polypeptide nanoparticles that thermally target solid tumors. Nano letters\| PubMed ID: 24738626	2014

Sarah R. MacEwan

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