unraveling-unseen-players-ocean-field-guide-to-water-chemistry-marine

Unraveling the Unseen Players in the Ocean - A Field Guide to Water Chemistry and Marine Microbiology

Here we introduce a series of thoroughly tested and well standardized research protocols adapted for use in remote marine environments. The sampling ...

coral-reef-arks-an-situ-mesocosm-toolkit-for-assembling-reef

Coral Reef Arks: An <em>In Situ</em> Mesocosm and Toolkit for Assembling Reef Communities

Coral reefs thrive and provide maximal ecosystem services when they support a multi-level trophic structure and grow in favorable water quality conditions ...

San Diego State University

Declines in coral cover are generally associated with increases in the abundance of fleshy algae. In many cases, it remains unclear whether algae are responsible, directly or indirectly, for coral death or whether they simply settle on dead coral surfaces. Here, we show that algae can indirectly cause coral mortality by enhancing microbial activity via the release of dissolved compounds. When coral and algae were placed in chambers together but separated by a 0.02 mum filter, corals suffered 100% mortality. With the addition of the broad-spectrum antibiotic ampicillin, mortality was completely prevented. Physiological measurements showed complementary patterns of increasing coral stress with proximity to algae. Our results suggest that as human impacts increase and algae become more abundant on reefs a positive feedback loop may be created whereby compounds released by algae enhance microbial activity on live coral surfaces causing mortality of corals and further algal growth.

Indirect effects of algae on coral: algae-mediated, microbe-induced coral mortality.

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Microbes are key players in both healthy and degraded coral reefs. A combination of metagenomics, microscopy, culturing, and water chemistry were used to characterize microbial communities on four coral atolls in the Northern Line Islands, central Pacific. Kingman, a small uninhabited atoll which lies most northerly in the chain, had microbial and water chemistry characteristic of an open ocean ecosystem. On this atoll the microbial community was equally divided between autotrophs (mostly Prochlorococcus spp.) and heterotrophs. In contrast, Kiritimati, a large and populated ( approximately 5500 people) atoll, which is most southerly in the chain, had microbial and water chemistry characteristic of a near-shore environment. On Kiritimati, there were 10 times more microbial cells and virus-like particles in the water column and these microbes were dominated by heterotrophs, including a large percentage of potential pathogens. Culturable Vibrios were common only on Kiritimati. The benthic community on Kiritimati had the highest prevalence of coral disease and lowest coral cover. The middle atolls, Palmyra and Tabuaeran, had intermediate densities of microbes and viruses and higher percentages of autotrophic microbes than either Kingman or Kiritimati. The differences in microbial communities across atolls could reflect variation in 1) oceaonographic and/or hydrographic conditions or 2) human impacts associated with land-use and fishing. The fact that historically Kingman and Kiritimati did not differ strongly in their fish or benthic communities (both had large numbers of sharks and high coral cover) suggest an anthropogenic component in the differences in the microbial communities. Kingman is one of the world's most pristine coral reefs, and this dataset should serve as a baseline for future studies of coral reef microbes. Obtaining the microbial data set, from atolls is particularly important given the association of microbes in the ongoing degradation of coral reef ecosystems worldwide.

Microbial ecology of four coral atolls in the Northern Line Islands.

Les microbes sont des acteurs cl&#xE9;s dans les r&#xE9;cifs coralliens sains et d&#xE9;grad&#xE9;s. Une combinaison de la m&#xE9;tag&#xE9;nomique, microscopie, la culture, et de la chimie de l&#x26;#39;eau ont &#xE9;t&#xE9; utilis&#xE9;s pour caract&#xE9;riser les communaut&#xE9;s microbiennes sur les quatre atolls coralliens dans les &#xEE;les de la Ligne du Nord, centrale du Pacifique. Kingman, un petit atoll inhabit&#xE9; qui se trouve plus au nord dans la cha&#xEE;ne, avait microbienne et chimique de l&#x26;#39;eau caract&#xE9;ristique d&#x26;#39;un &#xE9;cosyst&#xE8;me de l&#x26;#39;oc&#xE9;an ouvert. Sur cet atoll de la communaut&#xE9; microbienne a &#xE9;t&#xE9; &#xE9;galement r&#xE9;parti entre autotrophes (la plupart du temps Prochlorococcus spp.) Et h&#xE9;t&#xE9;rotrophes. En revanche, Kiritimati, une grande et peupl&#xE9;e (environ 5500 personnes) atoll, qui est le plus au sud dans la cha&#xEE;ne, avait microbienne et chimique de l&#x26;#39;eau caract&#xE9;ristique d&#x26;#39;un environnement proche de la rive. Sur Kiritimati, il y avait 10 fois plus de cellules microbiennes et virus-like particules dans la colonne d&#x26;#39;eau et de ces microbes ont &#xE9;t&#xE9; domin&#xE9;es par les h&#xE9;t&#xE9;rotrophes, y compris un grand pourcentage d&#x26;#39;agents pathog&#xE8;nes potentiels. Vibrions cultivables &#xE9;taient monnaie courante uniquement sur Kiritimati. La communaut&#xE9; benthique sur Kiritimati eu la plus forte pr&#xE9;valence de la maladie du corail et de la couverture le plus faible de corail. Les atolls du milieu, Palmyre et Tabuaeran, avaient des densit&#xE9;s interm&#xE9;diaires de microbes et les virus et des pourcentages plus &#xE9;lev&#xE9;s de microbes autotrophes que soit Kingman ou Kiritimati. Les diff&#xE9;rences dans les communaut&#xE9;s microbiennes dans les atolls pourraient refl&#xE9;ter une variation dans 1) les conditions oceaonographic et / ou hydrographique ou 2) les impacts de l&#x26;#39;homme li&#xE9;s &#xE0; l&#x26;#39;utilisation des terres et de la p&#xEA;che. Le fait que, historiquement, Kingman et Kiritimati ne diff&#xE8;rent fortement dans leur poisson ou les communaut&#xE9;s benthiques (&#xE0; la fois eu un grand nombre de requins et de la couverture corallienne &#xE9;lev&#xE9;e) sugg&#xE8;rent une composante anthropique dans les diff&#xE9;rences dans les communaut&#xE9;s microbiennes. Kingman est l&#x26;#39;un des r&#xE9;cifs coralliens de la plan&#xE8;te les plus vierges, et cet ensemble de donn&#xE9;es devrait servir de base pour de futures &#xE9;tudes de microbes des r&#xE9;cifs coralliens. Obtenir l&#x26;#39;ensemble des donn&#xE9;es microbienne, &#xE0; partir des atolls est particuli&#xE8;rement important &#xE9;tant donn&#xE9; l&#x26;#39;association des microbes dans la d&#xE9;gradation continue des &#xE9;cosyst&#xE8;mes des r&#xE9;cifs coralliens &#xE0; travers le monde.

&#xC9;cologie microbienne des Quatre atolls coralliens dans les &#xEE;les de la Ligne du Nord

Mikroben sind die Hauptakteure in der gesunden und degradierten Korallenriffe. Eine Kombination von Metagenomik, Mikroskopie, Kultivierung und Wasserchemie wurden verwendet, um mikrobielle Gemeinschaften auf vier Korallen-Atolle in der Northern Line Islands, Zentralpazifik zu charakterisieren. Kingman, ein kleines, unbewohntes Atoll die n&ouml;rdlichste in der Kette liegt, hatte mikrobielle Wasser Chemie charakteristische eines offenen Ozean-&Ouml;kosystems. Auf diesem Atoll wurde die mikrobielle Gemeinschaft gleicherma&szlig;en autotrophen (meist Prochlorococcus spp.) und Heterotrophs aufgeteilt. Im Gegensatz dazu Kiritimati, eine gro&szlig;e und bev&ouml;lkerte (ca. 5500 Personen)-Atoll, das s&uuml;dlichste in der Kette ist, hatte mikrobielle und Wasser Chemie charakteristisch f&uuml;r eine Nearshore-Umgebung. Auf Kiritimati gab es 10 mal mehr Mikroben Zellen und Virus-&auml;hnliche Partikel in der Wassers&auml;ule und diese Mikroben wurden dominiert von Heterotrophs, darunter einen gro&szlig;en Anteil der potenzielle Krankheitserreger. Kultivierbarer Vibrios wurden h&auml;ufig nur auf Kiritimati. Der benthischen auf Kiritimati wurde der h&ouml;chsten Pr&auml;valenz der Korallen-Krankheit und niedrigsten Korallen Abdeckung. Der mittlere Atolle, Palmyra und Tabuaeran, hatte mittlere Dichte von Mikroben und Viren und h&ouml;here Prozents&auml;tze von autotrophen Mikroorganismen als Kingman oder Kiritimati. Die Unterschiede in mikrobielle Gemeinschaften &uuml;ber Atollen konnte Variation in 1) Oceaonographic und/oder hydrographischen Bedingungen oder 2) menschlichen Auswirkungen Landnutzung und Angeln widerspiegeln. Die Tatsache, dass historisch Kingman und Kiritimati nicht stark unterscheiden in ihren Fisch oder benthische Gemeinschaften (beide hatten viele Haie und hohe Korallen Abdeckung) empfehlen eine anthropogene Komponente in den Unterschieden in der mikrobiellen Gemeinschaften. Kingman ist eine der unber&uuml;hrtesten Korallenriffe der Welt und dieses Dataset sollte als Basis f&uuml;r zuk&uuml;nftige Studien der Korallenriff Mikroben dienen. Erhalten der mikrobiellen Daten, von Atollen ist besonders wichtig angesichts die Vereinigung der Mikroben in der anhaltenden Verschlechterung der Korallenriff&ouml;kosystemen weltweit.

Mikrobielle &Ouml;kologie vier Korallen-Atollen in der Northern Line Islands.

I microbi sono giocatori chiave nelle barriere coralline sane e degradati. Una combinazione della metagenomica, microscopia, coltura e chimica dell&#39;acqua sono stati utilizzati per caratterizzare la comunit&agrave; microbiche su quattro atolli corallini in linea isole settentrionali, Pacifico centrale. Kingman, un piccolo atollo disabitato che si trova pi&ugrave; a nord della catena, aveva microbica e acqua chimica caratteristico di un ecosistema dell&#39;oceano aperto. Su questo atollo della comunit&agrave; microbica fu ugualmente diviso tra autotrofi (soprattutto Acinetobacter spp.) ed eterotrofi. Al contrario, Kiritimati, un atollo (circa 5500 persone) grande e popolato, che &egrave; il pi&ugrave; meridionale della catena, aveva microbica e chimica caratteristico di un ambiente vicino a riva l&#39;acqua. A Kiritimati, c&#39;erano cellule microbiche 10 volte di pi&ugrave; e particelle virus-simili nella colonna d&#39;acqua e questi microbi sono stati dominati da eterotrofi, tra cui una grande percentuale di potenziali agenti patogeni. Vibrione coltivabili erano comuni solo su Kiritimati. La comunit&agrave; bentonica a Kiritimati era pi&ugrave; alta prevalenza di malattia di corallo e copertura di corallo pi&ugrave; basso. Gli atolli medio, Palmyra e Tabuaeran, avevano densit&agrave; intermedia di microbi e virus e percentuali pi&ugrave; elevate di microrganismi autotrofi rispetto a Kingman o Kiritimati. Le differenze nelle comunit&agrave; microbiche attraverso atolli potrebbero riflettere variazione 1) oceaonographic e/o condizioni idrografiche o 2) umani impatti associati con uso della terra e la pesca. Il fatto che storicamente Kingman e Kiritimati non differiscono fortemente nel loro pesce o comunit&agrave; bentoniche (entrambi avevano grandi numeri di squali e alta copertura corallo) suggeriscono un componente antropica delle differenze nelle comunit&agrave; microbiche. Kingman &egrave; una delle pi&ugrave; incontaminate barriere coralline del mondo, e questo dataset dovrebbe servire come base per gli studi futuri di microbi di barriera corallina. Ottenere il set di dati microbico, da atolli &egrave; particolarmente importante dato l&#39;associazione dei microbi nella degradazione della barriera corallina ecosistemi in corso in tutto il mondo.

Ecologia microbica di quattro atolli corallini in linea isole settentrionali.

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&#x5317;&#x30E9;&#x30A4;&#x30F3;&#x8AF8;&#x5CF6;&#x306E;&#x56DB;&#x30B5;&#x30F3;&#x30B4;&#x74B0;&#x7901;&#x306E;&#x5FAE;&#x751F;&#x7269;&#x751F;&#x614B;

&#xBBF8;&#xC0DD;&#xBB3C;&#xC740; &#xAC74;&#xAC15; &#xD558; &#xACE0; &#xC800;&#xD558; &#xB41C; &#xC0B0;&#xD638;&#xCD08;&#xC5D0;&#xC11C; &#xD575;&#xC2EC; &#xC120;&#xC218;. Metagenomics, &#xD604;&#xBBF8;&#xACBD; &#xAC80;&#xC0AC; &#xBC95;, &#xACBD;&#xC791;, &#xBB3C; &#xD654;&#xD559;&#xC758; &#xACB0;&#xD569; 4 &#xAC1C;&#xC758; &#xC0B0;&#xD638; &#xD658;&#xCD08;&#xC5D0;&#xB294; &#xBD81;&#xBD80; &#xB77C;&#xC778; &#xC81C;&#xB3C4;, &#xC911;&#xC559; &#xD0DC;&#xD3C9;&#xC591;&#xC5D0; &#xBBF8;&#xC0DD;&#xBB3C; &#xCEE4;&#xBBA4;&#xB2C8;&#xD2F0;&#xC758; &#xD2B9;&#xC131;&#xC744; &#xC0AC;&#xC6A9; &#xD588;&#xB2E4;. &#xD0B9; &#xB9E8;, &#xC791;&#xC740; &#xBB34;&#xC778;&#xB3C4; &#xC0B0;&#xD638; &#xC12C; &#xCCB4;&#xC778;&#xC758; &#xAC00;&#xC7A5; &#xBD81;&#xCABD;&#xC73C;&#xB85C; &#xAC70;&#xC9D3;&#xB9D0;, &#xBBF8;&#xC0DD;&#xBB3C; &#xD588; &#xACE0; &#xBC14;&#xB2E4; &#xC0DD;&#xD0DC;&#xACC4;&#xC758; &#xD2B9;&#xC131; &#xD654;&#xD559; &#xBB3C;. &#xC774; &#xC12C;&#xC5D0; &#xBBF8;&#xC0DD;&#xBB3C; &#xCEE4;&#xBBA4;&#xB2C8;&#xD2F0; heterotrophs autotrophs (&#xC8FC;&#xB85C; Prochlorococcus &#xC885;)&#xC640; &#xB3D9;&#xB4F1; &#xD558; &#xAC8C; &#xBD84;&#xD560; &#xB418;&#xC5C8;&#xB2E4;. &#xBC18;&#xBA74;, &#xD0A4;&#xB9AC;&#xD2F0;&#xB9C8;&#xD2F0; &#xC12C;, &#xCCB4;&#xC778;&#xC758; &#xAC00;&#xC7A5; &#xB0A8;&#xCABD; &#xC778; &#xD06C;&#xACE0; &#xC778;&#xAD6C; (&#xC57D; 5500 &#xBA85;) &#xD658;&#xCD08;&#xB294; &#xBBF8;&#xC0DD;&#xBB3C; &#xC84C;&#xACE0; &#xD574;&#xC548; &#xADFC;&#xCC98; &#xD658;&#xACBD;&#xC758; &#xD2B9;&#xC131; &#xD654;&#xD559; &#xBB3C;. &#xD0A4;&#xB9AC;&#xD2F0;&#xB9C8;&#xD2F0; &#xC12C;, &#xAC70;&#xAE30;&#xC5D0; 10 &#xBC30; &#xC774;&#xC0C1; &#xBBF8;&#xC0DD;&#xBB3C; &#xC138;&#xD3EC;&#xC640; &#xBB3C; &#xC5F4;&#xC5D0;&#xC11C; &#xBC14;&#xC774;&#xB7EC;&#xC2A4; &#xAC19;&#xC740; &#xC785;&#xC790;&#xC640; &#xC774;&#xB7EC;&#xD55C; &#xBBF8;&#xC0DD;&#xBB3C; heterotrophs, &#xC7A0;&#xC7AC;&#xC801;&#xC778; &#xBCD1;&#xC6D0; &#xADE0;&#xC758; &#xD070; &#xBE44;&#xC728;&#xC744; &#xD3EC;&#xD568; &#xD558; &#xC5EC; &#xC9C0;&#xBC30; &#xD588;&#xB2E4;. Culturable &#xBC00;&#xC5B4;&#xB0B4; &#xD0A4;&#xB9AC;&#xD2F0;&#xB9C8;&#xD2F0; &#xC12C; &#xC5D0;&#xC11C;&#xB9CC; &#xC77C;&#xBC18;&#xC801;&#xC778; &#xD588;&#xB2E4;&#xC785;&#xB2C8;&#xB2E4;. &#xD0A4;&#xB9AC;&#xD2F0;&#xB9C8;&#xD2F0; &#xC12C;&#xC5D0; &#xC0DD;&#xBB3C;&#xC774; &#xCEE4;&#xBBA4;&#xB2C8;&#xD2F0; &#xC0B0;&#xD638; &#xBCD1;&#xACFC; &#xAC00;&#xC7A5; &#xB0AE;&#xC740; &#xC0B0;&#xD638; &#xCEE4;&#xBC84;&#xC758; &#xCD5C;&#xACE0; &#xC720;&#xD589;&#xC744; &#xD588;&#xB2E4;. &#xC911;&#xAC04; &#xD658;&#xCD08;, &#xD314;&#xBBF8;&#xB77C;&#xC640; Tabuaeran, &#xC138;&#xADE0;&#xACFC; &#xBC14;&#xC774;&#xB7EC;&#xC2A4;&#xC758; &#xC911;&#xAC04; &#xBC00;&#xB3C4; &#xD0B9; &#xB610;&#xB294; &#xD0A4;&#xB9AC;&#xD2F0;&#xB9C8;&#xD2F0; &#xC12C; &#xBCF4;&#xB2E4; autotrophic &#xBBF8;&#xC0DD;&#xBB3C;&#xC758; &#xB192;&#xC740; &#xBE44;&#xC728;&#xC744; &#xD588;&#xB2E4;. &#xD658;&#xCD08;&#xC5D0; &#xAC78;&#xCCD0; &#xBBF8;&#xC0DD;&#xBB3C; &#xCEE4;&#xBBA4;&#xB2C8;&#xD2F0;&#xC758; &#xCC28;&#xC774; &#xC218; &#xD3B8;&#xCC28; 1) oceaonographic/&#xD558;&#xC774;&#xB4DC;&#xB85C;&#xADF8;&#xB798;&#xD53D; &#xC870;&#xAC74; &#xB610;&#xB294; &#xD1A0;&#xC9C0; &#xC0AC;&#xC6A9;&#xACFC; &#xB09A;&#xC2DC; &#xAD00;&#xB828; 2) &#xC778;&#xAC04;&#xC758; &#xC601;&#xD5A5;&#xC5D0; &#xBC18;&#xC601; &#xD558; &#xACE0; &#xC788;&#xB2E4;. &#xC5ED;&#xC0AC;&#xC801;&#xC73C;&#xB85C; &#xD0B9; &#xBC0F; &#xD0A4;&#xB9AC;&#xD2F0;&#xB9C8;&#xD2F0; &#xC12C; &#xCC28;&#xC774;&#xAC00; &#xC5C6; &#xAC15;&#xB825; &#xD558; &#xAC8C; &#xADF8;&#xB4E4;&#xC758; &#xBB3C;&#xACE0;&#xAE30; &#xB098; &#xC0DD;&#xBB3C;&#xC774; &#xCEE4;&#xBBA4;&#xB2C8;&#xD2F0; (&#xB458; &#xB2E4; &#xB9CE;&#xC740; &#xC0C1;&#xC5B4;&#xC640; &#xB192;&#xC740; &#xC0B0;&#xD638; &#xCEE4;&#xBC84; &#xD588;&#xB2E4;) &#xC0AC;&#xC2E4; &#xBBF8;&#xC0DD;&#xBB3C; &#xCEE4;&#xBBA4;&#xB2C8;&#xD2F0;&#xC758; &#xCC28;&#xC774;&#xC5D0; anthropogenic &#xAD6C;&#xC131; &#xC694;&#xC18C;&#xB97C; &#xAC83;&#xC774; &#xC88B;&#xC2B5;&#xB2C8;&#xB2E4;. Kingman&#xB294; &#xC138;&#xACC4;&#xC5D0;&#xC11C; &#xAC00;&#xC7A5; &#xAE68;&#xB057; &#xD55C; &#xC0B0;&#xD638;&#xCD08;, &#xC911; &#xD558;&#xB098; &#xC774;&#xBA70;&#xC774; &#xB370;&#xC774;&#xD130; &#xC9D1;&#xD569;&#xC73C;&#xB85C; &#xC0B0;&#xD638;&#xCD08; &#xBBF8;&#xC0DD;&#xBB3C;&#xC758; &#xBBF8;&#xB798; &#xC5F0;&#xAD6C;&#xC5D0; &#xB300; &#xD55C; &#xAE30;&#xC900;&#xC73C;&#xB85C; &#xBD09;&#xC0AC; &#xD574;&#xC57C; &#xD55C;&#xB2E4;. &#xD658;&#xCD08;&#xC5D0;&#xC11C; &#xBBF8;&#xC0DD;&#xBB3C; &#xB370;&#xC774;&#xD130; &#xC138;&#xD2B8;&#xB97C; &#xC5BB;&#xB294; &#xC804;&#xC138;&#xACC4; &#xC0B0;&#xD638;&#xCD08; &#xC0DD;&#xD0DC;&#xACC4;&#xC758; &#xC9C0;&#xC18D;&#xC801;&#xC778; &#xC800;&#xD558;&#xC5D0;&#xC11C; &#xBBF8;&#xC0DD;&#xBB3C;&#xC758; &#xD611;&#xD68C;&#xB97C; &#xC8FC;&#xC5B4;&#xC9C4; &#xD2B9;&#xD788; &#xC911;&#xC694; &#xD558;&#xB2E4;.

4 &#xAC1C;&#xC758; &#xC0B0;&#xD638; &#xD658;&#xCD08; &#xBD81;&#xBD80; &#xB77C;&#xC778; &#xC81C;&#xB3C4;&#xC5D0;&#xC11C; &#xBBF8;&#xC0DD;&#xBB3C; &#xC0DD;&#xD0DC;.

Los microbios son actores clave en los arrecifes de coral sanos y degradado. Una combinaci&#xF3;n de la metagen&#xF3;mica, microscop&#xED;a, cultivo, y la qu&#xED;mica del agua se utilizaron para caracterizar las comunidades microbianas en cuatro atolones de coral en las Islas de la L&#xED;nea del Norte, Pac&#xED;fico Central. Kingman, un peque&#xF1;o atol&#xF3;n deshabitado que se encuentra m&#xE1;s al norte de la cadena, ten&#xED;a microbiana y caracter&#xED;stica qu&#xED;mica del agua de un ecosistema del oc&#xE9;ano abierto. En este atol&#xF3;n la comunidad microbiana se dividi&#xF3; en partes iguales entre los aut&#xF3;trofos (en su mayor&#xED;a Prochlorococcus spp.) Y heter&#xF3;trofos. Por el contrario, Kiritimati, una grande y poblada (aproximadamente 5500 personas) atol&#xF3;n, que es la m&#xE1;s meridional de la cadena, ten&#xED;a microbiana y caracter&#xED;stica qu&#xED;mica del agua de un entorno cercano a la costa. En Kiritimati, hab&#xED;a 10 veces m&#xE1;s c&#xE9;lulas microbianas y las part&#xED;culas similares al virus de la columna de agua y estos microbios fueron dominados por los heter&#xF3;trofos, incluyendo un gran porcentaje de pat&#xF3;genos potenciales. Vibriones cultivables eran comunes s&#xF3;lo en Kiritimati. La comunidad bent&#xF3;nica en Kiritimati tuvieron la mayor prevalencia de enfermedades del coral y la m&#xE1;s baja cobertura de coral. Los atolones media, Palmira y Tabuaeran, ten&#xED;an densidades intermedias de los microbios y los virus y los mayores porcentajes de microbios que ya sea aut&#xF3;trofos o Kiritimati Kingman. Las diferencias en las comunidades microbianas a trav&#xE9;s de los atolones podr&#xED;a reflejar la variaci&#xF3;n en 1) las condiciones oceaonographic y / o hidrogr&#xE1;fica o 2) los impactos humanos asociados con el uso de la tierra y la pesca. El hecho de que, hist&#xF3;ricamente, Kingman y Kiritimati no difieren mucho en su pescado o de las comunidades bent&#xF3;nicas (ambos ten&#xED;an un gran n&#xFA;mero de tiburones y la cobertura de coral de alto), sugieren un componente antropog&#xE9;nico en las diferencias en las comunidades microbianas. Kingman es uno de los arrecifes de coral del mundo m&#xE1;s pr&#xED;stinos, y este conjunto de datos debe servir como punto de partida para futuros estudios de los microbios de arrecifes de coral. La obtenci&#xF3;n del conjunto de datos microbiana, de los atolones es particularmente importante dada la asociaci&#xF3;n de los microbios en la actual degradaci&#xF3;n de los ecosistemas de arrecifes de coral de todo el mundo.

Ecolog&#xED;a Microbiana de los cuatro atolones de coral en las Islas de la L&#xED;nea del Norte

Space limitation leads to competition between benthic, sessile organisms on coral reefs. As a primary example, reef-building corals are in direct contact with each other and many different species and functional groups of algae. Here we characterize interactions between three coral genera and three algal functional groups using a combination of hyperspectral imaging and oxygen microprofiling. We also performed in situ interaction transects to quantify the relative occurrence of these interaction on coral reefs. These studies were conducted in the Southern Line Islands, home to some of the most remote and near-pristine reefs in the world. Our goal was to determine if different types of coral-coral and coral-algal interactions were characterized by unique fine-scale physiological signatures. This is the first report using hyperspectral imaging for characterization of marine benthic organisms at the micron scale and proved to be a valuable tool for discriminating among different photosynthetic organisms. Consistent patterns emerged in physiology across different types of competitive interactions. In cases where corals were in direct contact with turf or macroalgae, there was a zone of hypoxia and altered pigmentation on the coral. In contrast, interaction zones between corals and crustose coralline algae (CCA) were not hypoxic and the coral tissue was consistent across the colony. Our results suggest that at least two main characteristic coral interaction phenotypes exist: 1) hypoxia and coral tissue disruption, seen with interactions between corals and fleshy turf and/or some species of macroalgae, and 2) no hypoxia or tissue disruption, seen with interactions between corals and some species of CCA. Hyperspectral imaging in combination with oxygen profiling provided useful information on competitive interactions between benthic reef organisms, and demonstrated that some turf and fleshy macroalgae can be a constant source of stress for corals, while CCA are not.

Hyperspectral and physiological analyses of coral-algal interactions.

&#x7A7A;&#x95F4;&#x9650;&#x5236;&#x5728;&#x73CA;&#x745A;&#x7901;&#x4E0A;&#x7684;&#x5E95;&#x6816;&#x3001; &#x56FA;&#x7740;&#x6709;&#x673A;&#x4F53;&#x4E4B;&#x95F4;&#x5BFC;&#x81F4;&#x7684;&#x7ADE;&#x4E89;&#x3002;&#x4F5C;&#x4E3A;&#x4E00;&#x4E2A;&#x4E3B;&#x8981;&#x7684;&#x4F8B;&#x5B50;&#xFF0C;&#x9020;&#x7901;&#x73CA;&#x745A;&#x662F;&#x5F7C;&#x6B64;&#x548C;&#x8BB8;&#x591A;&#x4E0D;&#x540C;&#x7684;&#x7269;&#x79CD;&#x548C;&#x5B98;&#x80FD;&#x56E2;&#x7684;&#x85FB;&#x7C7B;&#x7684;&#x76F4;&#x63A5;&#x63A5;&#x89E6;&#x3002;&#x5728;&#x8FD9;&#x91CC;&#x6211;&#x4EEC;&#x7684;&#x7279;&#x70B9;&#x662F;&#x4E09;&#x4E2A;&#x73CA;&#x745A;&#x5C5E;&#x548C;&#x4F7F;&#x7528;&#x7684;&#x9AD8;&#x5149;&#x8C31;&#x6210;&#x50CF;&#x548C;&#x6C27; microprofiling &#x7EC4;&#x5408;&#x7684;&#x4E09;&#x4E2A;&#x85FB;&#x7C7B;&#x5B98;&#x80FD;&#x56E2;&#x4E4B;&#x95F4;&#x7684;&#x4EA4;&#x4E92;&#x3002;&#x6211;&#x4EEC;&#x8FD8;&#x8FDB;&#x884C;&#x4E86;&#x73B0;&#x573A;&#x4E92;&#x52A8;&#x6837;&#x5E26;&#x91CF;&#x5316;&#x8FD9;&#x4E9B;&#x76F8;&#x4E92;&#x4F5C;&#x7528;&#x5BF9;&#x73CA;&#x745A;&#x7901;&#x7684;&#x76F8;&#x5BF9;&#x53D1;&#x751F;&#x3002;&#x8FD9;&#x4E9B;&#x7814;&#x7A76;&#x8FDB;&#x884C;&#x4E86;&#x5728;&#x5357;&#x90E8;&#x7EBF;&#x7FA4;&#x5C9B;&#xFF0C;&#x4E00;&#x4E9B;&#x4E16;&#x754C;&#x6700;&#x504F;&#x8FDC;&#x548C;&#x9644;&#x8FD1;&#x539F;&#x59CB;&#x73CA;&#x745A;&#x7901;&#x7684;&#x5BB6;&#x56ED;&#x3002;&#x6211;&#x4EEC;&#x7684;&#x76EE;&#x6807;&#x662F;&#x786E;&#x5B9A;&#x662F;&#x5426;&#x73CA;&#x745A;&#x73CA;&#x745A;&#x53CA;&#x73CA;&#x745A;&#x85FB;&#x76F8;&#x4E92;&#x4F5C;&#x7528;&#x7684;&#x4E0D;&#x540C;&#x7C7B;&#x578B;&#x7684;&#x7279;&#x70B9;&#x662F;&#x552F;&#x4E00;&#x7684;&#x5C0F;&#x5C3A;&#x5EA6;&#x751F;&#x7406;&#x7B7E;&#x540D;&#x3002;&#x8FD9;&#x662F;&#x4F7F;&#x7528;&#x9AD8;&#x5149;&#x8C31;&#x6210;&#x50CF;&#x7684;&#x6D77;&#x6D0B;&#x5E95;&#x6816;&#x751F;&#x7269;&#x5FAE;&#x7C73;&#x5C3A;&#x5EA6;&#x8868;&#x5F81;&#x7684;&#x7B2C;&#x4E00;&#x6B21;&#x62A5;&#x544A;&#xFF0C;&#x8BC1;&#x660E;&#x662F;&#x4E0D;&#x540C;&#x7684;&#x5149;&#x5408;&#x751F;&#x7269;&#x4E4B;&#x95F4;&#x6B67;&#x89C6;&#x7684;&#x5B9D;&#x8D35;&#x5DE5;&#x5177;&#x3002;&#x4E00;&#x8D2F;&#x6A21;&#x5F0F;&#x51FA;&#x73B0;&#x4E86;&#x751F;&#x7406;&#x5728;&#x4E0D;&#x540C;&#x7C7B;&#x578B;&#x7684;&#x7ADE;&#x4E89;&#x4E92;&#x52A8;&#x3002;&#x5728;&#x73CA;&#x745A;&#x4EBA;&#x4E0E;&#x8349;&#x76AE;&#x6216;&#x5927;&#x578B;&#x6D77;&#x85FB;&#x76F4;&#x63A5;&#x63A5;&#x89E6;&#x7684;&#x60C5;&#x51B5;&#x4E0B;&#xFF0C;&#x6709;&#x7F3A;&#x6C27;&#x548C;&#x6539;&#x53D8;&#x7684;&#x8272;&#x7D20;&#x5BF9;&#x73CA;&#x745A;&#x533A;&#x3002;&#x76F8;&#x6BD4;&#x4E4B;&#x4E0B;&#xFF0C;&#x73CA;&#x745A;&#x548C; crustose &#x73CA;&#x745A;&#x85FB; (CCA) &#x4E4B;&#x95F4;&#x7684;&#x4E92;&#x52A8;&#x533A;&#x4E0D;&#x662F;&#x7F3A;&#x6C27;&#x548C;&#x73CA;&#x745A;&#x7EC4;&#x7EC7;&#x5404;&#x5730;&#x6B96;&#x6C11;&#x5730;&#x5F88;&#x4E0D;&#x4E00;&#x81F4;&#x3002;&#x6211;&#x4EEC;&#x7684;&#x7814;&#x7A76;&#x7ED3;&#x679C;&#x8868;&#x660E;&#x81F3;&#x5C11;&#x4E24;&#x4E2A;&#x4E3B;&#x8981;&#x7279;&#x5F81;&#x73CA;&#x745A;&#x4E92;&#x52A8;&#x578B;&#x5B58;&#x5728;&#xFF1A; 1&#xFF09; &#x7F3A;&#x6C27;&#x548C;&#x73CA;&#x745A;&#x7EC4;&#x7EC7;&#x4E2D;&#x65AD;&#xFF0C;&#x770B;&#x5230;&#x4E0E;&#x73CA;&#x745A;&#x548C;&#x8089;&#x8D28;&#x7684;&#x8349;&#x576A;&#x548C;/&#x6216;&#x5927;&#x578B;&#x6D77;&#x85FB;&#xFF0C;&#x6709;&#x4E9B;&#x7269;&#x79CD;&#x4E4B;&#x95F4;&#x7684;&#x76F8;&#x4E92;&#x4F5C;&#x7528;&#x548C; 2&#xFF09; &#x6CA1;&#x6709;&#x7F3A;&#x6C27;&#x6216;&#x7EC4;&#x7EC7;&#x7684;&#x4E2D;&#x65AD;&#xFF0C;&#x770B;&#x5230;&#x4E0E;&#x73CA;&#x745A;&#x4E0E;&#x5171;&#x540C;&#x56FD;&#x5BB6;&#x8BC4;&#x4F30;&#x7684;&#x4E00;&#x4E9B;&#x7269;&#x79CD;&#x4E4B;&#x95F4;&#x7684;&#x76F8;&#x4E92;&#x4F5C;&#x7528;&#x3002;&#x4E0E;&#x6C27;&#x5206;&#x6790;&#x76F8;&#x7ED3;&#x5408;&#x7684;&#x9AD8;&#x5149;&#x8C31;&#x6210;&#x50CF;&#x5BF9;&#x6D77;&#x5E95;&#x73CA;&#x745A;&#x7901;&#x751F;&#x7269;&#x7ADE;&#x4E89;&#x76F8;&#x4E92;&#x4F5C;&#x7528;&#x63D0;&#x4F9B;&#x6709;&#x7528;&#x7684;&#x4FE1;&#x606F;&#x548C;&#x8868;&#x660E;&#x4E00;&#x4E9B;&#x8349;&#x576A;&#x548C;&#x8089;&#x8D28;&#x7684;&#x5927;&#x578B;&#x85FB;&#x7C7B;&#x53EF;&#x4EE5;&#x662F;&#x6052;&#x5B9A;&#x538B;&#x529B;&#x6765;&#x6E90;&#x4E4B;&#x4E00;&#x3001; &#x73CA;&#x745A;&#x3001; &#x800C;&#x4E0D;&#x662F;&#x5171;&#x540C;&#x56FD;&#x5BB6;&#x8BC4;&#x4F30;&#x3002;

&#x9AD8;&#x5149;&#x8C31;&#x548C;&#x751F;&#x7406;&#x5206;&#x6790;&#x73CA;&#x745A;&#x85FB;&#x7684;&#x76F8;&#x4E92;&#x4F5C;&#x7528;&#x3002;

Limitation d&#39;espace conduit &agrave; la concurrence entre les organismes benthiques, sessiles sur les r&eacute;cifs coralliens. Comme un exemple, les coraux de r&eacute;cifs sont en contact direct avec les autres et nombreuses diff&eacute;rentes esp&egrave;ces et groupes fonctionnels d&#39;algues. Ici, nous caract&eacute;risons les interactions entre les trois genres de coraux et de trois algues des groupes fonctionnels, en utilisant une combinaison de hyperspectral imaging et oxyg&egrave;ne microprofiling. Nous avons &eacute;galement effectu&eacute; interaction in situe des transects pour quantifier la pr&eacute;sence relative de ces interactions sur les r&eacute;cifs coralliens. Ces &eacute;tudes ont &eacute;t&eacute; men&eacute;es dans la ligne &icirc;les du Sud, abrite certains des r&eacute;cifs plus recul&eacute;es et les plus proches-vierges dans le monde. Notre objectif &eacute;tait de d&eacute;terminer si les diff&eacute;rents types d&#39;interactions corail corail et corail-algues ont &eacute;t&eacute; caract&eacute;ris&eacute;s par signatures physiologiques uniques de petite &eacute;chelle. C&#39;est le premier rapport &agrave; l&#39;aide de l&#39;imagerie hyperspectrale pour la caract&eacute;risation des organismes benthiques marins &agrave; l&#39;&eacute;chelle du micron et s&#39;est r&eacute;v&eacute;l&eacute;e pour &ecirc;tre un pr&eacute;cieux outil pour discriminer entre les diff&eacute;rents organismes photosynth&eacute;tiques. Mod&egrave;les compatibles a &eacute;merg&eacute; en physiologie &agrave; travers diff&eacute;rents types d&#39;interactions comp&eacute;titives. Dans les cas o&ugrave; les coraux ont &eacute;t&eacute; en contact direct avec le gazon ou de macroalgues, il y avait une zone de l&#39;hypoxie et pigmentation alt&eacute;r&eacute;e sur le corail. En revanche, les zones d&#39;interaction entre les coraux et les algues corallines (CCA) n&#39;&eacute;taient pas hypoxiques et le tissu corail a &eacute;t&eacute; coh&eacute;rent dans l&#39;ensemble de la colonie. Nos r&eacute;sultats sugg&egrave;rent qu&#39;il existe au moins deux ph&eacute;notypes de l&#39;interaction de corail caract&eacute;ristique principale : d&eacute;sorganisation du tissu hypoxie 1) et le corail, S&icirc;n des interactions entre les coraux et gazon charnue et/ou de certaines esp&egrave;ces de macroalgues et 2) sans interruption hypoxie ou tissu, vu avec les interactions entre les coraux et quelques esp&egrave;ces de la DPA. L&#39;imagerie hyperspectrale en combinaison avec l&#39;oxyg&egrave;ne de profilage fournit des informations utiles sur les interactions comp&eacute;titives entre les organismes benthiques de corail et ont d&eacute;montr&eacute; que certains gazons et macroalgues charnues peuvent &ecirc;tre une source constante de stress pour les coraux, tandis que la CCA ne sont pas.

Hyperspectrale et analyses physiologiques des interactions corail-algues.

Raum Beschr&auml;nkung f&uuml;hrt zu einem Wettbewerb zwischen benthische, sessile Organismen in Korallenriffen. Als prim&auml;re Beispiel sind riffbildenden Korallen in direktem Kontakt miteinander und viele verschiedene Arten und Funktionsgruppen von Algen. Hier pr&auml;gen wir Interaktionen zwischen drei Korallen-Gattungen und drei Algen Funktionsgruppen, die mit einer Kombination aus Hyperspectral Imaging und Sauerstoff Microprofilierung. Wir spielten auch in-situ Interaktion Querprofilen zur Quantifizierung der des relativen Vorkommens dieser Interaktion in Korallenriffen. Diese Studien wurden in den s&uuml;dlichen Linie Inseln, in dem einige der entlegensten und nahe-unber&uuml;hrte Riffe der Welt durchgef&uuml;hrt. Unser Ziel war es, festzustellen, ob verschiedene Arten von Korallen-Korallen und Koralle-Algen-Interaktionen durch eindeutige abgegrenzten physiologische Signaturen gekennzeichnet wurden. Dies ist der erste Bericht mit Hyperspectral Imaging zur Charakterisierung von marine benthische an der Mikron-Skala und erwies sich als ein wertvolles Werkzeug f&uuml;r die Unterscheidung zwischen den verschiedenen photosynthetischen Organismen. Einheitliches Pers&ouml;nlichkeitsmuster herausgeschoben Physiologie an verschiedenen Arten von Konkurrenz-Interaktionen. In F&auml;llen, wo die Korallen in direktem Kontakt mit Rasen oder Makroalgen waren, gab es eine Zone der Hypoxie und ver&auml;nderte Pigmentierung auf die Korallen. Im Gegensatz dazu Interaktion Zonen zwischen Korallen und findet coralline Algen (CCA) wurden nicht Hypoxie und Koralle Gewebe stimmte &uuml;ber die Kolonie. Unsere Ergebnisse legen nahe, dass mindestens zwei wichtigsten charakteristischen Korallen Interaktion Ph&auml;notypen vorhanden sind: 1) Hypoxie und Koralle Gewebe-St&ouml;rung, mit Interaktionen zwischen den Korallen und fleischigen Rasen bzw. einige Arten von Makroalgen, gesehen und 2) Hypoxie oder Gewebe unterbrechungsfrei, gesehen mit Interaktionen zwischen Korallen und einige Arten von CCA. Hyperspectral Imaging in Kombination mit Sauerstoff profiling n&uuml;tzliche Informationen auf Konkurrenz-Interaktionen zwischen Organismen der Tiefsee Riff bereitgestellt, und gezeigt, dass einige Rasen und fleischigen Makroalgen eine st&auml;ndige Quelle von Stress f&uuml;r Korallen, sind w&auml;hrend CCA sind nicht.

Hyperspektrale und physiologischen Analysen der Korallen-Algen-Interaktionen.

Limitazione di spazio conduce alla concorrenza tra gli organismi bentonici, sessili sulle barriere coralline. Come un esempio primario, costruzione della barriera corallina Coralli sono a diretto contatto con gli altri e molte specie diverse e gruppi funzionali di alghe. Qui ci caratterizzano le interazioni tra tre generi di coralli e tre gruppi funzionali alghe utilizzando una combinazione di hyperspectral imaging e ossigeno microprofiling. Abbiamo anche eseguito in situ interazione transetti per quantificare l&#39;occorrenza relativa di queste interazioni sulla barriera corallina. Questi studi sono stati condotti in linea isole meridionali, sede di alcune delle barriere coralline pi&ugrave; remote e pressoch&eacute; incontaminate del mondo. Il nostro obiettivo era quello di determinare se diversi tipi di interazioni corallo-corallo e corallo-algali sono stati caratterizzati da uniche scala fine fisiologiche firme. Questo &egrave; il primo rapporto utilizzando hyperspectral imaging per la caratterizzazione di organismi bentonici marini alla scala di micron e ha dimostrato di essere un valido strumento per discriminare tra i diversi organismi fotosintetici. Modelli coerenti emersero in fisiologia attraverso diversi tipi di interazioni competitive. Nei casi dove i coralli erano in contatto diretto con il manto erboso o macroalghe, c&#39;era una zona di ipossia e alterata pigmentazione sul corallo. Al contrario, zone di interazione tra i coralli e le alghe coralline crustose (CCA) non erano ipossiche e il tessuto del corallo &egrave; stato coerenza in tutta la colonia. I nostri risultati suggeriscono che esistono almeno due fenotipi di interazione corallo caratteristica principale: 1) ipossia e corallo distorsioni del tessuto, visto con interazioni tra coralli e tappeto erboso carnosa e/o alcune specie di macroalghe e 2) senza causare interruzioni ipossia o tessuto, visto con interazioni tra coralli e alcune specie di CCA. Hyperspectral imaging in combinazione con profilatura ossigeno fornito informazioni utili sulle interazioni competitive tra gli organismi bentonici reef e ha dimostrato che alcuni tappeto erboso e macroalghe carnosa pu&ograve; essere una costante fonte di stress per coralli, mentre CCA non sono.

Iperspettrali e fisiologiche analisi delle interazioni delle alghe corallo.

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&#x30CF;&#x30A4;&#x30D1;&#x30FC; &#x30B9;&#x30DA;&#x30AF;&#x30C8;&#x30EB;&#x3068;&#x30B5;&#x30F3;&#x30B4;&#x85FB;&#x985E;&#x306E;&#x76F8;&#x4E92;&#x4F5C;&#x7528;&#x306E;&#x751F;&#x7406;&#x7684;&#x89E3;&#x6790;

&#xACF5;&#xAC04; &#xC81C;&#xD55C; &#xC0B0;&#xD638;&#xCD08;&#xC5D0; &#xC0DD;&#xBB3C;&#xC774;, &#xCC29; &#xC720;&#xAE30; &#xCCB4; &#xC0AC;&#xC774;&#xC758; &#xACBD;&#xC7C1;&#xC73C;&#xB85C; &#xC774;&#xC5B4;&#xC9D1;&#xB2C8;&#xB2E4;. &#xAE30;&#xBCF8; &#xC608;&#xC81C;&#xB85C; &#xC554;&#xCD08; &#xAC74;&#xBB3C; &#xC0B0;&#xD638; &#xC11C;&#xB85C; &#xBC0F; &#xB9CE;&#xC740; &#xB2E4;&#xB978; &#xC218; &#xC885; &#xBC0F; &#xC870;&#xB958;&#xC758; &#xAE30;&#xB2A5; &#xADF8;&#xB8F9;&#xC73C;&#xB85C; &#xC9C1;&#xC811; &#xC811;&#xCD09;&#xC5D0; &#xC788;&#xC2B5;&#xB2C8;&#xB2E4;. &#xC5EC;&#xAE30; &#xC6B0;&#xB9AC;&#xB294; &#xC138; &#xC0B0;&#xD638; &#xC18D; hyperspectral &#xC774;&#xBBF8;&#xC9D5; &#xBC0F; &#xC0B0;&#xC18C; microprofiling&#xC758; &#xC870;&#xD569;&#xC744; &#xC0AC;&#xC6A9; &#xD558; &#xC5EC; 3 &#xAC1C;&#xC758; &#xC870;&#xB958; &#xAE30;&#xB2A5; &#xADF8;&#xB8F9; &#xAC04;&#xC758; &#xC0C1;&#xD638; &#xC791;&#xC6A9;&#xC744; &#xD2B9;&#xC9D5;. &#xC6B0;&#xB9AC;&#xB294; &#xB610;&#xD55C; &#xD604;&#xC7A5;&#xC5D0;&#xC11C; &#xC0C1;&#xD638; &#xC791;&#xC6A9;&#xC744; &#xC218;&#xD589; &#xC0B0;&#xD638;&#xCD08;&#xC5D0; &#xC774;&#xB7EC;&#xD55C; &#xC0C1;&#xD638; &#xC791;&#xC6A9;&#xC758; &#xC0C1;&#xB300;&#xC801; &#xD56D;&#xBAA9; &#xCC99;&#xB3C4;&#xB97C; transects. &#xC774;&#xB7EC;&#xD55C; &#xC5F0;&#xAD6C;&#xC5D0;&#xC11C; &#xB0A8;&#xBD80; &#xC120; &#xC12C;, &#xC77C;&#xBD80;&#xB294; &#xC138;&#xACC4;&#xC5D0;&#xC11C; &#xAC00;&#xC7A5; &#xBA40;&#xACE0; &#xAC00;&#xAE4C;&#xC6B4; &#xAE68;&#xB057; &#xD55C; &#xC0B0;&#xD638;&#xCD08;&#xB97C; &#xC2E4;&#xC2DC; &#xD588;&#xB2E4;. &#xC6B0;&#xB9AC;&#xC758; &#xBAA9;&#xD45C;&#xB294; &#xACE0;&#xC720; &#xBC8C;&#xAE08; &#xADDC;&#xBAA8; &#xC0DD;&#xB9AC; &#xC11C;&#xBA85;&#xC744; &#xC0B0;&#xD638; &#xC0B0;&#xD638;&#xC640; &#xC0B0;&#xD638; &#xC870;&#xB958; &#xC0C1;&#xD638; &#xC791;&#xC6A9;&#xC758; &#xC885;&#xB958; &#xD2B9;&#xC9D5; &#xD588;&#xB2E4; &#xACB0;&#xC815; &#xD588;&#xB2E4;. &#xBBF8;&#xD06C;&#xB860; &#xADDC;&#xBAA8; &#xD574;&#xC591; &#xC0DD;&#xBB3C;&#xC774; &#xC720;&#xAE30; &#xCCB4;&#xC758; &#xD2B9;&#xC131; &#xBD84;&#xC11D;&#xC744; &#xC704;&#xD55C; hyperspectral &#xC774;&#xBBF8;&#xC9D5; &#xC0AC;&#xC6A9; &#xD558; &#xC5EC; &#xCCAB; &#xBC88;&#xC9F8; &#xBCF4;&#xACE0;&#xC11C; &#xC774;&#xBA70; &#xB2E4;&#xB978; &#xAD11;&#xD569;&#xC131; &#xC0DD;&#xBB3C; &#xC0AC;&#xC774;&#xC5D0;&#xC11C; &#xAC10; &#xBCC4;&#xC744; &#xC704;&#xD55C; &#xC720;&#xC6A9;&#xD55C; &#xB3C4;&#xAD6C; &#xC99D;&#xBA85;. &#xC77C;&#xAD00; &#xB41C; &#xD328;&#xD134; &#xC0DD;&#xB9AC;&#xD559;&#xC5D0;&#xC11C; &#xACBD;&#xC7C1;&#xB825; &#xC788;&#xB294; &#xC0C1;&#xD638; &#xC791;&#xC6A9;&#xC758; &#xC5EC;&#xB7EC; &#xC885;&#xB958;&#xC5D0; &#xAC78;&#xCCD0; &#xB4F1;&#xC7A5;. &#xC0B0;&#xD638; &#xC788;&#xB358; &#xC794;&#xB514; &#xB610;&#xB294; macroalgae&#xC640; &#xC9C1;&#xC811; &#xC811;&#xCD09;&#xC5D0;&#xC11C; &#xD558;&#xB294; &#xACBD;&#xC6B0;&#xC5D0;&#xB294; hypoxia&#xACFC; &#xC0B0;&#xD638;&#xC5D0; &#xBCC0;&#xACBD; &#xB41C; &#xCC29; &#xC0C9;&#xC758; &#xC601;&#xC5ED;&#xC774; &#xC774;&#xC5C8;&#xB2E4;. &#xB300;&#xC870;&#xC801;&#xC73C;&#xB85C;, &#xC0B0;&#xD638;&#xC640; crustose &#xC0B0;&#xD638;&#xD574; &#xC870;&#xB958; (CCA) &#xC0AC;&#xC774; &#xC0C1;&#xD638; &#xC791;&#xC6A9; &#xC601;&#xC5ED; hypoxic &#xB418;&#xC5C8;&#xACE0; &#xC0B0;&#xD638; &#xC870;&#xC9C1; &#xC2DD;&#xBBFC;&#xC9C0;&#xC5D0;&#xC11C; &#xC77C;&#xCE58; &#xD588;&#xB2E4;. &#xC6B0;&#xB9AC;&#xC758; &#xACB0;&#xACFC; &#xB450; &#xAC1C; &#xC774;&#xC0C1;&#xC758; &#xC8FC;&#xC694; &#xD2B9;&#xC131; &#xC0B0;&#xD638; &#xC0C1;&#xD638; &#xACE0;&#xAE30; &#xC874;&#xC7AC; &#xD558;&#xB294; &#xAC83;&#xC774; &#xC88B;&#xC2B5;&#xB2C8;&#xB2E4;: &#xC0B0;&#xD638; &#xBC0F; &#xB2E4; &#xC721; &#xC794;&#xB514; macroalgae&#xC758; &#xC77C;&#xBD80; &#xC218; &#xC885; &#xAC04;&#xC758; &#xC0C1;&#xD638; &#xC791;&#xC6A9;&#xC73C;&#xB85C; &#xBCF8; 1) hypoxia &#xBC0F; &#xC0B0;&#xD638; &#xC870;&#xC9C1; &#xC911;&#xB2E8; &#xBC0F; &#xC0B0;&#xD638;&#xC640; CCA&#xC758; &#xC77C;&#xBD80; &#xC218; &#xC885; &#xAC04;&#xC758; &#xC0C1;&#xD638; &#xC791;&#xC6A9;&#xC73C;&#xB85C; &#xBCF8; hypoxia &#xB610;&#xB294; &#xC870;&#xC9C1; &#xC911;&#xB2E8; 2) &#xC5C6;&#xC774;. &#xC0B0;&#xC18C; &#xD504;&#xB85C; &#xD30C;&#xC77C;&#xB9C1; &#xD568;&#xAED8;&#xC5D0;&#xC11C; Hyperspectral &#xC0C1;&#xC0C1; &#xC0DD;&#xBB3C;&#xC774; &#xC554;&#xCD08; &#xC0DD;&#xBB3C; &#xAC04;&#xC758; &#xC0C1;&#xD638; &#xACBD;&#xC7C1; &#xC791;&#xC6A9;&#xC5D0; &#xC720;&#xC6A9;&#xD55C; &#xC815;&#xBCF4;&#xB97C; &#xC81C;&#xACF5; &#xD558; &#xACE0; &#xC77C;&#xBD80; &#xC794;&#xB514;&#xC640; &#xB2E4; &#xC721; macroalgae &#xC218; &#xC788;&#xB294; &#xC0B0;&#xD638;, &#xC2A4;&#xD2B8;&#xB808;&#xC2A4;&#xC758; &#xC9C0;&#xC18D;&#xC801;&#xC778; &#xC18C;&#xC2A4; CCA&#xB294; &#xC5C6;&#xC9C0;&#xB9CC; &#xC2DC;&#xC5F0;.

Hyperspectral &#xBC0F; &#xC0B0;&#xD638; &#xC870;&#xB958; &#xC0C1;&#xD638; &#xC791;&#xC6A9;&#xC758; &#xC0DD;&#xB9AC; &#xC801; &#xBD84;&#xC11D;.

Limitaci&oacute;n del espacio conduce a la competencia entre organismos bent&oacute;nicos s&eacute;siles en arrecifes de coral. Como un ejemplo primario, corales de arrecifes est&aacute;n en contacto directo con los dem&aacute;s y muchas diferentes especies y grupos funcionales de las algas. Aqu&iacute; se caracterizan las interacciones entre los tres g&eacute;neros de corales y algas de la tres grupos funcionales utilizando una combinaci&oacute;n de hiperespectral como proyecci&oacute;n de imagen y ox&iacute;geno. Tambi&eacute;n realizamos la interacci&oacute;n in situ transectos para cuantificar la incidencia relativa de estos interacci&oacute;n en arrecifes de coral. Estos estudios se realizaron en la l&iacute;nea de islas del sur, hogar de algunos de los arrecifes m&aacute;s remotos y cercanos-pr&iacute;stinos del mundo. Nuestro objetivo fue determinar si diferentes tipos de interacciones de coral-coral y corales-algas se caracterizaron por la &uacute;nicas escala mas fina fisiol&oacute;gicas firmas. Este es el primer informe utilizando hiperespectral para caracterizaci&oacute;n de organismos bent&oacute;nicos marinos en la escala del micr&oacute;n y demostr&oacute; para ser una herramienta valiosa para discriminar entre diferentes organismos fotosint&eacute;ticos. Consistentes patrones emergieron en fisiolog&iacute;a a trav&eacute;s de diferentes tipos de interacciones competitivas. En casos donde los corales estaban en contacto directo con el c&eacute;sped o macroalgas, hab&iacute;a una zona de hipoxia y pigmentaci&oacute;n alterada en el coral. Por el contrario, zonas de interacci&oacute;n entre los corales y algas coralinas costrosas (CCA) no eran hip&oacute;xicas y el tejido coral era constante en toda la Colonia. Nuestros resultados sugieren que existen al menos dos fenotipos de interacci&oacute;n coral caracter&iacute;stica principal: interrupci&oacute;n de tejido 1) hipoxia y coral, con interacciones entre corales y c&eacute;sped carnoso o algunas especies de macroalgas y 2) sin interrupci&oacute;n de hipoxia o tejido, visto con interacciones entre los corales y algunas especies de CCA. Hiperespectral en combinaci&oacute;n con ox&iacute;geno perfiles proporcion&oacute; informaci&oacute;n &uacute;til sobre Interacciones competitivas entre organismos bent&oacute;nicos de arrecife y demostraron que algunos c&eacute;sped y macroalgas carnosas pueden ser una constante fuente de estr&eacute;s para los corales, mientras que la CCA no son.

Hiperespectral y an&aacute;lisis fisiol&oacute;gicos de interacciones corales-algas.

The health of the coral reefs of the Abrolhos Bank (Southwestern Atlantic) was characterized with a holistic approach using measurements of four ecosystem components: (i) inorganic and organic nutrient concentrations, [1] fish biomass, [1] macroalgal and coral cover and (iv) microbial community composition and abundance. The possible benefits of protection from fishing were particularly evaluated by comparing sites with varying levels of protection. Two reefs within the well-enforced no-take area of the National Marine Park of Abrolhos (Parcel dos Abrolhos and California) were compared with two unprotected coastal reefs (Sebastião Gomes and Pedra de Leste) and one legally protected but poorly enforced coastal reef (the "paper park" of Timbebas Reef). The fish biomass was lower and the fleshy macroalgal cover was higher in the unprotected reefs compared with the protected areas. The unprotected and protected reefs had similar seawater chemistry. Lower vibrio CFU counts were observed in the fully protected area of California Reef. Metagenome analysis showed that the unprotected reefs had a higher abundance of archaeal and viral sequences and more bacterial pathogens, while the protected reefs had a higher abundance of genes related to photosynthesis. Similar to other reef systems in the world, there was evidence that reductions in the biomass of herbivorous fishes and the consequent increase in macroalgal cover in the Abrolhos Bank may be affecting microbial diversity and abundance. Through the integration of different types of ecological data, the present study showed that protection from fishing may lead to greater reef health. The data presented herein suggest that protected coral reefs have higher microbial diversity, with the most degraded reef (Sebastião Gomes) showing a marked reduction in microbial species richness. It is concluded that ecological conditions in unprotected reefs may promote the growth and rapid evolution of opportunistic microbial pathogens.

Abrolhos bank reef health evaluated by means of water quality, microbial diversity, benthic cover, and fish biomass data.

The majority of the world's coral reefs are in various stages of decline. While a suite of disturbances (overfishing, eutrophication, and global climate change) have been identified, the mechanism(s) of reef system decline remain elusive. Increased microbial and viral loading with higher percentages of opportunistic and specific microbial pathogens have been identified as potentially unifying features of coral reefs in decline. Due to their relative size and high per cell activity, a small change in microbial biomass may signal a large reallocation of available energy in an ecosystem; that is the microbialization of the coral reef. Our hypothesis was that human activities alter the energy budget of the reef system, specifically by altering the allocation of metabolic energy between microbes and macrobes. To determine if this is occurring on a regional scale, we calculated the basal metabolic rates for the fish and microbial communities at 99 sites on twenty-nine coral islands throughout the Pacific Ocean using previously established scaling relationships. From these metabolic rate predictions, we derived a new metric for assessing and comparing reef health called the microbialization score. The microbialization score represents the percentage of the combined fish and microbial predicted metabolic rate that is microbial. Our results demonstrate a strong positive correlation between reef microbialization scores and human impact. In contrast, microbialization scores did not significantly correlate with ocean net primary production, local chla concentrations, or the combined metabolic rate of the fish and microbial communities. These findings support the hypothesis that human activities are shifting energy to the microbes, at the expense of the macrobes. Regardless of oceanographic context, the microbialization score is a powerful metric for assessing the level of human impact a reef system is experiencing.

Assessing coral reefs on a Pacific-wide scale using the microbialization score.

Planar optodes were used to visualize oxygen distribution patterns associated with a coral reef associated green algae (Chaetomorpha sp.) and a hermatypic coral (Favia sp.) separately, as standalone organisms, and placed in close proximity mimicking coral-algal interactions. Oxygen patterns were assessed in light and dark conditions and under varying flow regimes. The images show discrete high oxygen concentration regions above the organisms during lighted periods and low oxygen in the dark. Size and orientation of these areas were dependent on flow regime. For corals and algae in close proximity the 2D optodes show areas of extremely low oxygen concentration at the interaction interfaces under both dark (18.4 ± 7.7 µmol O2 L(- 1)) and daylight (97.9 ± 27.5 µmol O2 L(- 1)) conditions. These images present the first two-dimensional visualization of oxygen gradients generated by benthic reef algae and corals under varying flow conditions and provide a 2D depiction of previously observed hypoxic zones at coral algae interfaces. This approach allows for visualization of locally confined, distinctive alterations of oxygen concentrations facilitated by benthic organisms and provides compelling evidence for hypoxic conditions at coral-algae interaction zones.

Visualization of oxygen distribution patterns caused by coral and algae.

Benthic primary producers in tropical reef ecosystems can alter biogeochemical cycling and microbial processes in the surrounding seawater. In order to quantify these influences, we measured rates of photosynthesis, respiration, and dissolved organic carbon (DOC) exudate release by the dominant benthic primary producers (calcifying and non-calcifying macroalgae, turf-algae and corals) on reefs of Mo'orea French Polynesia. Subsequently, we examined planktonic and benthic microbial community response to these dissolved exudates by measuring bacterial growth rates and oxygen and DOC fluxes in dark and daylight incubation experiments. All benthic primary producers exuded significant quantities of DOC (roughly 10% of their daily fixed carbon) into the surrounding water over a diurnal cycle. The microbial community responses were dependent upon the source of the exudates and whether the inoculum of microbes included planktonic or planktonic plus benthic communities. The planktonic and benthic microbial communities in the unamended control treatments exhibited opposing influences on DO concentration where respiration dominated in treatments comprised solely of plankton and autotrophy dominated in treatments with benthic plus plankon microbial communities. Coral exudates (and associated inorganic nutrients) caused a shift towards a net autotrophic microbial metabolism by increasing the net production of oxygen by the benthic and decreasing the net consumption of oxygen by the planktonic microbial community. In contrast, the addition of algal exudates decreased the net primary production by the benthic communities and increased the net consumption of oxygen by the planktonic microbial community thereby resulting in a shift towards net heterotrophic community metabolism. When scaled up to the reef habitat, exudate-induced effects on microbial respiration did not outweigh the high oxygen production rates of benthic algae, such that reef areas dominated with benthic primary producers were always estimated to be net autotrophic. However, estimates of microbial consumption of DOC at the reef scale surpassed the DOC exudation rates suggesting net consumption of DOC at the reef-scale. In situ mesocosm experiments using custom-made benthic chambers placed over different types of benthic communities exhibited identical trends to those found in incubation experiments. Here we provide the first comprehensive dataset examining direct primary producer-induced, and indirect microbially mediated alterations of elemental cycling in both benthic and planktonic reef environments over diurnal cycles. Our results highlight the variability of the influence of different benthic primary producers on microbial metabolism in reef ecosystems and the potential implications for energy transfer to higher trophic levels during shifts from coral to algal dominance on reefs.

Influence of coral and algal exudates on microbially mediated reef metabolism.

Genomics and metagenomics have revolutionized our understanding of marine microbial ecology and the importance of microbes in global geochemical cycles. However, the process of DNA sequencing has always been an abstract extension of the research expedition, completed once the samples were returned to the laboratory. During the 2013 Southern Line Islands Research Expedition, we started the first effort to bring next generation sequencing to some of the most remote locations on our planet. We successfully sequenced twenty six marine microbial genomes, and two marine microbial metagenomes using the Ion Torrent PGM platform on the Merchant Yacht Hanse Explorer. Onboard sequence assembly, annotation, and analysis enabled us to investigate the role of the microbes in the coral reef ecology of these islands and atolls. This analysis identified phosphonate as an important phosphorous source for microbes growing in the Line Islands and reinforced the importance of L-serine in marine microbial ecosystems. Sequencing in the field allowed us to propose hypotheses and conduct experiments and further sampling based on the sequences generated. By eliminating the delay between sampling and sequencing, we enhanced the productivity of the research expedition. By overcoming the hurdles associated with sequencing on a boat in the middle of the Pacific Ocean we proved the flexibility of the sequencing, annotation, and analysis pipelines.

Sequencing at sea: challenges and experiences in Ion Torrent PGM sequencing during the 2013 Southern Line Islands Research Expedition.

Bacteriophages (phages) defend mucosal surfaces against bacterial infections. However, their complex interactions with their bacterial hosts and with the mucus-covered epithelium remain mostly unexplored. Our previous work demonstrated that T4 phage with Hoc proteins exposed on their capsid adhered to mucin glycoproteins and protected mucus-producing tissue culture cells in vitro. On this basis, we proposed our bacteriophage adherence to mucus (BAM) model of immunity. Here, to test this model, we developed a microfluidic device (chip) that emulates a mucosal surface experiencing constant fluid flow and mucin secretion dynamics. Using mucus-producing human cells and Escherichia coli in the chip, we observed similar accumulation and persistence of mucus-adherent T4 phage and nonadherent T4∆hoc phage in the mucus. Nevertheless, T4 phage reduced bacterial colonization of the epithelium >4,000-fold compared with T4∆hoc phage. This suggests that phage adherence to mucus increases encounters with bacterial hosts by some other mechanism. Phages are traditionally thought to be completely dependent on normal diffusion, driven by random Brownian motion, for host contact. We demonstrated that T4 phage particles displayed subdiffusive motion in mucus, whereas T4∆hoc particles displayed normal diffusion. Experiments and modeling indicate that subdiffusive motion increases phage-host encounters when bacterial concentration is low. By concentrating phages in an optimal mucus zone, subdiffusion increases their host encounters and antimicrobial action. Our revised BAM model proposes that the fundamental mechanism of mucosal immunity is subdiffusion resulting from adherence to mucus. These findings suggest intriguing possibilities for engineering phages to manipulate and personalize the mucosal microbiome. 

Subdiffusive motion of bacteriophage in mucosal surfaces increases the frequency of bacterial encounters.

The natural beauty of coral reefs attracts millions of tourists worldwide resulting in substantial revenues for the adjoining economies. Although their visual appearance is a pivotal factor attracting humans to coral reefs current monitoring protocols exclusively target biogeochemical parameters, neglecting changes in their aesthetic appearance. Here we introduce a standardized computational approach to assess coral reef environments based on 109 visual features designed to evaluate the aesthetic appearance of art. The main feature groups include color intensity and diversity of the image, relative size, color, and distribution of discernable objects within the image, and texture. Specific coral reef aesthetic values combining all 109 features were calibrated against an established biogeochemical assessment (NCEAS) using machine learning algorithms. These values were generated for ∼2,100 random photographic images collected from 9 coral reef locations exposed to varying levels of anthropogenic influence across 2 ocean systems. Aesthetic values proved accurate predictors of the NCEAS scores (root mean square error < 5 for N ≥ 3) and significantly correlated to microbial abundance at each site. This shows that mathematical approaches designed to assess the aesthetic appearance of photographic images can be used as an inexpensive monitoring tool for coral reef ecosystems. It further suggests that human perception of aesthetics is not purely subjective but influenced by inherent reactions towards measurable visual cues. By quantifying aesthetic features of coral reef systems this method provides a cost efficient monitoring tool that targets one of the most important socioeconomic values of coral reefs directly tied to revenue for its local population. 

Can we measure beauty? Computational evaluation of coral reef aesthetics.

Coral reefs are among the most productive and diverse marine ecosystems on the Earth. They are also particularly sensitive to changing energetic requirements by different trophic levels. Microbialization specifically refers to the increase in the energetic metabolic demands of microbes relative to macrobes and is significantly correlated with increasing human influence on coral reefs. In this study, metabolic theory of ecology is used to quantify the relative contributions of two broad bacterioplankton groups, autotrophs and heterotrophs, to energy flux on 27 Pacific coral reef ecosystems experiencing human impact to varying degrees. The effective activation energy required for photosynthesis is lower than the average energy of activation for the biochemical reactions of the Krebs cycle, and changes in the proportional abundance of these two groups can greatly affect rates of energy and materials cycling. We show that reef-water communities with a higher proportional abundance of microbial autotrophs expend more metabolic energy per gram of microbial biomass. Increased energy and materials flux through fast energy channels (i.e. water-column associated microbial autotrophs) may dampen the detrimental effects of increased heterotrophic loads (e.g. coral disease) on coral reef systems experiencing anthropogenic disturbance. 

Energetic differences between bacterioplankton trophic groups and coral reef resistance.

Microbialization refers to the observed shift in ecosystem trophic structure towards higher microbial biomass and energy use. On coral reefs, the proximal causes of microbialization are overfishing and eutrophication, both of which facilitate enhanced growth of fleshy algae, conferring a competitive advantage over calcifying corals and coralline algae. The proposed mechanism for this competitive advantage is the DDAM positive feedback loop (dissolved organic carbon (DOC), disease, algae, microorganism), where DOC released by ungrazed fleshy algae supports copiotrophic, potentially pathogenic bacterial communities, ultimately harming corals and maintaining algal competitive dominance. Using an unprecedented data set of >400 samples from 60 coral reef sites, we show that the central DDAM predictions are consistent across three ocean basins. Reef algal cover is positively correlated with lower concentrations of DOC and higher microbial abundances. On turf and fleshy macroalgal-rich reefs, higher relative abundances of copiotrophic microbial taxa were identified. These microbial communities shift their metabolic potential for carbohydrate degradation from the more energy efficient Embden-Meyerhof-Parnas pathway on coral-dominated reefs to the less efficient Entner-Doudoroff and pentose phosphate pathways on algal-dominated reefs. This 'yield-to-power' switch by microorganism directly threatens reefs via increased hypoxia and greater CO2 release from the microbial respiration of DOC.

Global microbialization of coral reefs.

On coral reefs, microorganisms are essential for recycling nutrients to primary producers through the remineralization of benthic-derived organic matter. Diel investigations of reef processes are required to holistically understand the functional roles of microbial players in these ecosystems. Here we report a metagenomic analysis characterizing microbial communities in the water column overlying 16 remote forereef sites over a diel cycle. Our results show that microbial community composition is more dissimilar between day and night samples collected from the same site than between day or night samples collected across geographically distant reefs. Diel community differentiation is largely driven by the flux of Psychrobacter sp., which is two-orders of magnitude more abundant during the day. Nighttime communities are enriched with species of Roseobacter, Halomonas, and Alteromonas encoding a greater variety of pathways for carbohydrate catabolism, further illustrating temporal patterns of energetic provisioning between different marine microbes. Dynamic diel fluctuations of microbial populations could also support the efficient trophic transfer of energy posited in coral reef food webs.

Diel population and functional synchrony of microbial communities on coral reefs.

The microbialization of coral reefs predicts that microbial oxygen consumption will cause reef deoxygenation. Here we tested this hypothesis by analyzing reef microbial and primary producer oxygen metabolisms. Metagenomic data and in vitro incubations of bacteria with primary producer exudates showed that fleshy algae stimulate incomplete carbon oxidation metabolisms in heterotrophic bacteria. These metabolisms lead to increased cell sizes and abundances, resulting in bacteria consuming 10 times more oxygen than in coral incubations. Experiments probing the dissolved and gaseous oxygen with primary producers and bacteria together indicated the loss of oxygen through ebullition caused by heterogenous nucleation on algae surfaces. A model incorporating experimental production and loss rates predicted that microbes and ebullition can cause the loss of up to 67% of gross benthic oxygen production. This study indicates that microbial respiration and ebullition are increasingly relevant to reef deoxygenation as reefs become dominated by fleshy algae.

ArticleTotal : 2	Year
Publication title Cited by 33	2014
Publication title Cited by 11	2023

Article	Year
Indirect effects of algae on coral: algae-mediated, microbe-induced coral mortality. Ecology letters\| PubMed ID: 16796574	2006
Microbial ecology of four coral atolls in the Northern Line Islands. PloS one\| PubMed ID: 18301735	2008
Hyperspectral and physiological analyses of coral-algal interactions. PloS one\| PubMed ID: 19956632	2009
Abrolhos bank reef health evaluated by means of water quality, microbial diversity, benthic cover, and fish biomass data. PloS one\| PubMed ID: 22679480	2012
Assessing coral reefs on a Pacific-wide scale using the microbialization score. PloS one\| PubMed ID: 22970122	2012
Visualization of oxygen distribution patterns caused by coral and algae. PeerJ\| PubMed ID: 23882443	2013
Influence of coral and algal exudates on microbially mediated reef metabolism. PeerJ\| PubMed ID: 23882445	2013
Sequencing at sea: challenges and experiences in Ion Torrent PGM sequencing during the 2013 Southern Line Islands Research Expedition. PeerJ\| PubMed ID: 25177534	2014
Subdiffusive motion of bacteriophage in mucosal surfaces increases the frequency of bacterial encounters. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America\| PubMed ID: 26483471	2015
Can we measure beauty? Computational evaluation of coral reef aesthetics. PeerJ\| PubMed ID: 26587350	2015
Energetic differences between bacterioplankton trophic groups and coral reef resistance. Proceedings. Biological sciences\| PubMed ID: 27097927	2016
Global microbialization of coral reefs. Nature microbiology\| PubMed ID: 27572833	2016
Diel population and functional synchrony of microbial communities on coral reefs. Nature communications\| PubMed ID: 30979882	2019
Biophysical and physiological processes causing oxygen loss from coral reefs. eLife\| PubMed ID: 31793432	2019

Mark Hatay

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