3-d-imaging-analysis-neurons-infected-vivo-with-toxoplasma

3-D Imaging and Analysis of Neurons Infected <em>In Vivo</em> with <em>Toxoplasma gondii</em>

Toxoplasma gondii is an obligate, intracellular parasite with a broad host range, including humans and rodents. In both humans and rodents, Toxoplasma ...

University of Arizona

In vivo studies support selective neuronal vulnerability to hypoxia-ischemia (HI) in the developing brain. Since differences in intrinsic properties of neurons might be responsible, pure cultures containing immature neurons (6-8 days in vitro) isolated from mouse cortex and hippocampus, regions chosen for their marked vulnerability to oxidative stress, were studied under in vitro ischemic conditions-oxygen-glucose deprivation (OGD). Twenty-four hours of reoxygenation after 2.5 h of OGD induced significantly greater cell death in hippocampal than in cortical neurons (67.8% vs. 33.4%, P = 0.0068). The expression of neuronal nitric oxide synthase (nNOS) protein, production of nitric oxide (NO), and reactive oxygen species (ROS), as well as glutathione peroxidase (GPx) activity and intracellular levels of reduced glutathione (GSH), were measured as indicators of oxidative stress. Hippocampal neurons had markedly higher nNOS expression than cortical neurons by 24 h of reoxygenation, which coincided with an increase in NO production, and significantly greater ROS accumulation. GPx activity declined significantly in hippocampal but not in cortical neurons at 4 and 24 h after OGD. The decrease in GSH level in hippocampal neurons correlated with the decline of GPx activity. Our data suggest that developing hippocampal neurons are more sensitive to OGD than cortical neurons. This finding supports our in vivo studies showing that mouse hippocampus is more vulnerable than cortex after neonatal HI. An imbalance between excess prooxidant production (increased nNOS expression, and NO and ROS production) and insufficient antioxidant defenses created by reduced GPx activity and GSH levels may, in part, explain the higher susceptibility to OGD of immature hippocampal neurons.

Differential vulnerability of immature murine neurons to oxygen-glucose deprivation.

We describe a Toxoplasma gondii strain that will permit the use of site-specific recombination to study the host-parasite interactions of this organism. This Toxoplasma strain efficiently injects a Cre fusion protein into host cells. In a Cre-reporter cell line, a single parasite invasion induced Cre-mediated recombination in 95% of infected host cells. By infecting Cre-reporter mice with these parasites, we also monitored host-cell infection in vivo.

Toxoplasma secreting Cre recombinase for analysis of host-parasite interactions.

Like many intracellular microbes, the protozoan parasite Toxoplasma gondii injects effector proteins into cells it invades. One group of these effector proteins is injected from specialized organelles called the rhoptries, which have previously been described to discharge their contents only during successful invasion of a host cell. In this report, using several reporter systems, we show that in vitro the parasite injects rhoptry proteins into cells it does not productively invade and that the rhoptry effector proteins can manipulate the uninfected cell in a similar manner to infected cells. In addition, as one of the reporter systems uses a rhoptry:Cre recombinase fusion protein, we show that in Cre-reporter mice infected with an encysting Toxoplasma-Cre strain, uninfected-injected cells, which could be derived from aborted invasion or cell-intrinsic killing after invasion, are actually more common than infected-injected cells, especially in the mouse brain, where Toxoplasma encysts and persists. This phenomenon has important implications for how Toxoplasma globally affects its host and opens a new avenue for how other intracellular microbes may similarly manipulate the host environment at large.

Toxoplasma co-opts host cells it does not invade.

Toxoplasma gondii infection occurs through the oral route, but we lack important information about how the parasite interacts with the host immune system in the intestine. We used two-photon laser-scanning microscopy in conjunction with a mouse model of oral T. gondii infection to address this issue. T. gondii established discrete foci of infection in the small intestine, eliciting the recruitment and transepithelial migration of neutrophils and inflammatory monocytes. Neutrophils accounted for a high proportion of actively invaded cells, and we provide evidence for a role for transmigrating neutrophils and other immune cells in the spread of T. gondii infection through the lumen of the intestine. Our data identify neutrophils as motile reservoirs of T. gondii infection and suggest a surprising retrograde pathway for parasite spread in the intestine.

Motile invaded neutrophils in the small intestine of Toxoplasma gondii-infected mice reveal a potential mechanism for parasite spread.

Toxoplasma gondii is an intracellular parasite that transitions from acute infection to a chronic infective state in its intermediate host via encystation, which enables the parasite to evade immune detection and clearance. It is widely accepted that the tissue cyst perimeter is highly and specifically decorated with glycan modifications; however, the role of these modifications in the establishment and persistence of chronic infection has not been investigated. Here we identify and biochemically and biologically characterize a Toxoplasma nucleotide-sugar transporter (TgNST1) that is required for cyst wall glycosylation. Toxoplasma strains deleted for the TgNST1 gene (Δnst1) form cyst-like structures in vitro but no longer interact with lectins, suggesting that Δnst1 strains are deficient in the transport and use of sugars for the biosynthesis of cyst-wall structures. In vivo infection experiments demonstrate that the lack of TgNST1 activity does not detectably impact the acute (tachyzoite) stages of an infection or tropism of the parasite for the brain but that Δnst1 parasites are severely defective in persistence during the chronic stages of the infection. These results demonstrate for the first time the critical role of parasite glycoconjugates in the persistence of Toxoplasma tissue cysts.

A nucleotide sugar transporter involved in glycosylation of the Toxoplasma tissue cyst wall is required for efficient persistence of bradyzoites.

During infection with the intracellular parasite Toxoplasma gondii, the presentation of parasite-derived antigens to CD4+ and CD8+ T cells is essential for long-term resistance to this pathogen. Fundamental questions remain regarding the roles of phagocytosis and active invasion in the events that lead to the processing and presentation of parasite antigens. To understand the most proximal events in this process, an attenuated non-replicating strain of T. gondii (the cpsII strain) was combined with a cytometry-based approach to distinguish active invasion from phagocytic uptake. In vivo studies revealed that T. gondii disproportionately infected dendritic cells and macrophages, and that infected dendritic cells and macrophages displayed an activated phenotype characterized by enhanced levels of CD86 compared to cells that had phagocytosed the parasite, thus suggesting a role for these cells in priming naïve T cells. Indeed, dendritic cells were required for optimal CD4+ and CD8+ T cell responses, and the phagocytosis of heat-killed or invasion-blocked parasites was not sufficient to induce T cell responses. Rather, the selective transfer of cpsII-infected dendritic cells or macrophages (but not those that had phagocytosed the parasite) to naïve mice potently induced CD4+ and CD8+ T cell responses, and conferred protection against challenge with virulent T. gondii. Collectively, these results point toward a critical role for actively infected host cells in initiating T. gondii-specific CD4+ and CD8+ T cell responses.

Parasite fate and involvement of infected cells in the induction of CD4+ and CD8+ T cell responses to Toxoplasma gondii.

The balance between controlling infection and limiting inflammation is particularly precarious in the brain because of its unique vulnerability to the toxic effects of inflammation. Astrocytes have been implicated as key regulators of neuroinflammation in CNS infections, including infection with Toxoplasma gondii, a protozoan parasite that naturally establishes a chronic CNS infection in mice and humans. In CNS toxoplasmosis, astrocytes are critical to controlling parasite growth. They secrete proinflammatory cytokines and physically encircle parasites. However, the molecular mechanisms used by astrocytes to limit neuroinflammation during toxoplasmic encephalitis have not yet been identified. TGF-β signaling in astrocytes is of particular interest because TGF-β is universally upregulated during CNS infection and serves master regulatory and primarily anti-inflammatory functions. We report in this study that TGF-β signaling is activated in astrocytes during toxoplasmic encephalitis and that inhibition of astrocytic TGF-β signaling increases immune cell infiltration, uncouples proinflammatory cytokine and chemokine production from CNS parasite burden, and increases neuronal injury. Remarkably, we show that the effects of inhibiting astrocytic TGF-β signaling are independent of parasite burden and the ability of GFAP(+) astrocytes to physically encircle parasites.

Astrocytic TGF-β signaling limits inflammation and reduces neuronal damage during central nervous system Toxoplasma infection.

Intracellular pathogens can replicate efficiently only after they manipulate and modify their host cells to create an environment conducive to replication. While diverse cellular pathways are targeted by different pathogens, metabolism, membrane and cytoskeletal architecture formation, and cell death are the three primary cellular processes that are modified by infections. Toxoplasma gondii is an obligate intracellular protozoan that infects ∼30% of the world's population and causes severe and life-threatening disease in developing fetuses, in immune-comprised patients, and in certain otherwise healthy individuals who are primarily found in South America. The high prevalence of Toxoplasma in humans is in large part a result of its ability to modulate these three host cell processes. Here, we highlight recent work defining the mechanisms by which Toxoplasma interacts with these processes. In addition, we hypothesize why some processes are modified not only in the infected host cell but also in neighboring uninfected cells.

Toxoplasma gondii development of its replicative niche: in its host cell and beyond.

The intracellular parasite Toxoplasma gondii has multiple strategies to alter host cell function, including the injection of rhoptry proteins into the cytosol of host cells as well as bystander populations, but the consequence of these events is unclear. Here, a reporter system using fluorescent parasite strains that inject Cre recombinase with their rhoptry proteins (Toxoplasma-Cre) was combined with Ai6 Cre reporter mice to identify cells that have been productively infected, that have been rhoptry injected but lack the parasite, or that have phagocytosed T. gondii. The ability to distinguish these host-parasite interactions was then utilized to dissect the events that lead to the production of interleukin-12 p40 (IL-12p40), which is required for resistance to T. gondii. In vivo, the use of invasion-competent or invasion-inhibited (phagocytosed) parasites with IL-12p40 (YET40) reporter mice revealed that dendritic cell (DC) and macrophage populations that phagocytose the parasite or are infected can express IL-12p40 but are not the major source, as larger numbers of uninfected cells secrete this cytokine. Similarly, the use of Toxoplasma-Cre parasite strains indicated that dendritic cells and inflammatory monocytes untouched by the parasite and not cells injected by the parasite are the primary source of IL-12p40. These results imply that a soluble host or parasite factor is responsible for the bulk of IL-12p40 production in vivo, rather than cellular interactions with T. gondii that result in infection, infection and clearance, injection of rhoptry proteins, or phagocytosis of the parasite.

Use of transgenic parasites and host reporters to dissect events that promote interleukin-12 production during toxoplasmosis.

The classic anti-viral cytokine interferon (IFN)-β can be induced during parasitic infection, but relatively little is know about the cell types and signaling pathways involved. Here we show that inflammatory monocytes (IMs), but not neutrophils, produce IFN-β in response to T. gondii infection. This difference correlated with the mode of parasite entry into host cells, with phagocytic uptake predominating in IMs and active invasion predominating in neutrophils. We also show that expression of IFN-β requires phagocytic uptake of the parasite by IMs, and signaling through Toll-like receptors (TLRs) and MyD88. Finally, we show that IMs are major producers of IFN-β in mesenteric lymph nodes following in vivo oral infection of mice, and mice lacking the receptor for type I IFN-1 show higher parasite loads and reduced survival. Our data reveal a TLR and internalization-dependent pathway in IMs for IFN-β induction to a non-viral pathogen.

Article	Year
Differential vulnerability of immature murine neurons to oxygen-glucose deprivation. Experimental neurology\| PubMed ID: 15473995	2004
Toxoplasma secreting Cre recombinase for analysis of host-parasite interactions. Nature methods\| PubMed ID: 20208532	2010
Toxoplasma co-opts host cells it does not invade. PLoS pathogens\| PubMed ID: 22910631	2012
Motile invaded neutrophils in the small intestine of Toxoplasma gondii-infected mice reveal a potential mechanism for parasite spread. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America\| PubMed ID: 23650399	2013
A nucleotide sugar transporter involved in glycosylation of the Toxoplasma tissue cyst wall is required for efficient persistence of bradyzoites. PLoS pathogens\| PubMed ID: 23658519	2013
Parasite fate and involvement of infected cells in the induction of CD4+ and CD8+ T cell responses to Toxoplasma gondii. PLoS pathogens\| PubMed ID: 24722202	2014
Astrocytic TGF-β signaling limits inflammation and reduces neuronal damage during central nervous system Toxoplasma infection. Journal of immunology (Baltimore, Md. : 1950)\| PubMed ID: 24860191	2014
Toxoplasma gondii development of its replicative niche: in its host cell and beyond. Eukaryotic cell\| PubMed ID: 24951442	2014
Use of transgenic parasites and host reporters to dissect events that promote interleukin-12 production during toxoplasmosis. Infection and immunity\| PubMed ID: 25024368	2014
Internalization and TLR-dependent type I interferon production by monocytes in response to Toxoplasma gondii. Immunology and cell biology\| PubMed ID: 25155465	2014

Anita A. Koshy

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