force-and-position-control-in-humans-the-role-of-augmented-feedback

Force and Position Control in Humans - The Role of Augmented Feedback

During motor behaviour, humans interact with the environment by for example manipulating objects and this is only possible because sensory feedback is ...

University of Freiburg

University of Fribourg

The present study aimed to elucidate whether the type of feedback influences the performance and the motor cortical activity when executing identical visuomotor tasks. For this purpose, time to task failure was measured during position- and force-controlled muscular contractions. Subjects received either visual feedback about the force produced by pressing a force transducer or about the actual position between thumb and index finger. Participants were instructed to either match the force level of 30% MVC or the finger position corresponding to the thumb and index finger angle at this contraction intensity. Subjects demonstrated a shorter time to task failure when they were provided with feedback about their joint position (11.5 ± 6.2 min) instead of force feedback (19.2 ± 12.8 min; P = 0.01). To test differences in motor cortical activity between position- and force-controlled contractions, subthreshold transcranial magnetic stimulation (subTMS) was applied while executing submaximal (20% MVC) contractions. SubTMS resulted in a suppression of the first dorsal interosseus muscle (FDI) EMG in both tasks. However, the mean suppression for the position-controlled task was significantly greater (18.6 ± 9.4% vs. 13.3 ± 7.5%; P = 0.025) and lasted longer (13.9 ± 7.5 ms vs. 9.3 ± 4.3 ms; P = 0.024) compared to the force-controlled task. The FDI background EMG obtained without stimulation was comparable in all conditions. The present results demonstrate that the presentation of different feedback modalities influences the time to task failure as well as the cortical activity. As only the feedback was altered but not the mechanics of the task, the present results add to the body of evidence that suggests that the central nervous system processes force and position information in different ways.

Time to task failure and motor cortical activity depend on the type of feedback in visuomotor tasks.

In the current study, we measured EMG suppression induced by subthreshold transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) to investigate the effects of sustained cycling exercise on intracortical inhibition.

Sustained cycling exercise increases intracortical inhibition.

It is well established that the presence of external feedback, also termed augmented feedback, can be used to improve performance of a motor task. The present study aimed to elucidate whether differential interpretation of the external feedback signal influences the time to task failure of a sustained submaximal contraction and modulates motor cortical activity. In Experiment 1, subjects had to maintain a submaximal contraction (30% of maximum force) performed with their thumb and index finger. Half of the tested subjects were always provided with feedback about joint position (pF-group), whereas the other half of the subjects were always provided with feedback about force (fF-group). Subjects in the pF-group were led to belief in half of their trials that they would receive feedback about the applied force, and subjects in the fF-group to receive feedback about the position. In both groups (fF and pF), the time to task failure was increased when subjects thought to receive feedback about the force. In Experiment 2, subthreshold transcranial magnetic stimulation was applied over the right motor cortex and revealed an increased motor cortical activity when subjects thought to receive feedback about the joint position. The results showed that the interpretation of feedback influences motor behavior and alters motor cortical activity. The current results support previous studies suggesting a distinct neural control of force and position.

Specific interpretation of augmented feedback changes motor performance and cortical processing.

Despite massive research efforts, it remains unclear how mechanical ankle instability (MAI) and functional ankle instability (FAI) affect joint control in the situation of ankle sprain. Thus, the purpose of this study was to evaluate whether individuals with MAI have deficits in stabilising their ankle joint in a close-to-injury situation compared with those with FAI and healthy controls.

Mechanical instability destabilises the ankle joint directly in the ankle-sprain mechanism.

It is well known that following skill learning, improvements in motor performance may transfer to the untrained contralateral limb. It is also well known that retention of a newly learned task A can be degraded when learning a competing task B that takes place directly after learning A. Here we investigate if this interference effect can also be observed in the limb contralateral to the trained one. Therefore, five different groups practiced a ballistic finger flexion task followed by an interfering visuomotor accuracy task with the same limb. Performance in the ballistic task was tested before the training, after the training and in an immediate retention test after the practice of the interference task for both the trained and the untrained hand. After training, subjects showed not only significant learning and interference effects for the trained limb but also for the contralateral untrained limb. Importantly, the interference effect in the untrained limb was dependent on the level of skill acquisition in the interfering motor task. These behavioural results of the untrained limb were accompanied by training specific changes in corticospinal excitability, which increased for the hemisphere ipsilateral to the trained hand following ballistic training and decreased during accuracy training of the ipsilateral hand. The results demonstrate that contralateral interference effects may occur, and that interference depends on the level of skill acquisition in the interfering motor task. This finding might be particularly relevant for rehabilitation.

Cross-limb interference during motor learning.

Augmented feedback (AF) can play an important role when learning or improving a motor skill. As research dealing with AF is broad and diverse, the purpose of this review is to provide the reader with an overview of the use of AF in exercise, motor learning and injury prevention research with respect to how it can be presented, its informational content and the limitations. The term 'augmented' feedback is used because additional information provided by an external source is added to the task-intrinsic feedback that originates from a person's sensory system. In recent decades, numerous studies from various fields within sport science (exercise science, sports medicine, motor control and learning, psychology etc.) have investigated the potential influence of AF on performance improvements. The first part of the review gives a theoretical background on feedback in general but particularly AF. The second part tries to highlight the differences between feedback that is given as knowledge of result and knowledge of performance. The third part introduces studies which have applied AF in exercise and prevention settings. Finally, the limitations of feedback research and the possible reasons for the diverging findings are discussed. The focus of this review lies mainly on the positive influence of AF on motor performance. Underlying neuronal adaptations and theoretical assumptions from learning theories are addressed briefly.

Improving motor performance: selected aspects of augmented feedback in exercise and health.

Drop jumps and their adaptations to training have been extensively investigated. However, the influence of augmented feedback (aF) on stretch-shortening cycle (SSC) was not scrutinized so far despite the well-known positive effects of aF on motor performance and motor learning. The aim of the present study was therefore to investigate the effects of aF by evaluating immediate within-session effects and long-term adaptations. 34 participants were assigned to three groups that trained drop jumps with different relative frequencies of aF about their jump height: 100%, 50%, or 0%. A significant within-session effect of aF on jump height was observed before and also after the training period (pre: +4.6%; post: +2.6%). In the long-term (comparing pre- to post-measurement), the 100% group showed the greatest increase in jump height (+14%), followed by the 50% (+10%) and the 0% group (+6%). The importance of aF on drop jumps is therefore twofold: (i) to immediately increase jump performance and (ii) to improve long-term training efficacy. In contrast to the proposition of the guidance hypothesis, high frequency of aF seems to be beneficial when maximizing SSC-performance. As jump height cannot be quantified without objective technical measures it is recommended to include them into daily training.

Jump performance and augmented feedback: immediate benefits and long-term training effects.

While medial gastrocnemius (MG) and soleus (SOL) are considered synergists, they are anatomically exclusive in that SOL crosses only the ankle, while MG crosses both the knee and ankle. Due to the force-length properties of both active and passive structures, activation of SOL and MG must be constantly regulated to provide the required joint torques for any planned movement. As such, the aim of this study was to investigate the neural regulation of MG and SOL when independently changing their length by changing only the knee joint angle, thus exclusively altering the length of MG fibers. MG and SOL motor units (MU) were recorded intramuscularly along with ultrasound imaging of MG and SOL fascicle lengths, while moving the knee through 60° of rotation and maintaining a low level of voluntary plantar flexor torque. The results showed a reciprocal activation of MG and SOL as the knee was moved into flexion and extension. A clear reduction in MG MU firing rates occurred as the knee was flexed (MG fascicles shortening), with de-recruitment of most MG MU occurring at close to full knee flexion. A concomitant increase in SOL MU activity was observed while no change in the length of its fascicles was found. The opposite effects were found when the knee was moved into extension. A strong correlation (ICC = 0.78) was found between the fascicle length at which MG MUs were de-recruited and subsequently re-recruited. This was stronger than the relationship of de-recruitment and re-recruitment with knee angle (ICC = 0.52), indicating that in this instance, muscle fascicle length rather than joint angle is more influential in regulating MG recruitment. Such a reciprocal arrangement like the one presented here for SOL and MG is essential for human voluntary movements such as walking or cycling.

Reciprocal activation of gastrocnemius and soleus motor units is associated with fascicle length change during knee flexion.

Factors such as an external focus of attention (EF) and augmented feedback (AF) have been shown to improve performance. However, the efficacy of providing AF to enhance motor performance has never been compared with the effects of an EF or an internal focus of attention (IF). Therefore, the aim of the present study was to identify which of the three conditions (AF, EF or IF) leads to the highest performance in a countermovement jump (CMJ). Nineteen volunteers performed 12 series of 8 maximum CMJs. Changes in jump height between conditions and within the series were analysed. Jump heights differed between conditions (P < 0.001), resulting in best performance with AF (32.04 ± 7.11 cm), followed by EF (31.21 ± 6.67 cm) and IF (30.77 ± 6.87 cm). Significantly different (P < 0.001) within-series effects of higher jump heights at the end of the series in AF (+1.60%) and lower jump heights at the end of the series in EF (-1.79%) and IF (-1.68%) were observed. Muscle activity did not differ between conditions. The differences between conditions and within the series provide evidence that AF leads to higher performance and better progression within one series than EF and IF. Consequently, AF seems to outperform EF and IF when maximising jump height.

Enhanced jump performance when providing augmented feedback compared to an external or internal focus of attention.

Simultaneous performance of a postural and a concurrent task is rather unproblematic as long as the postural task is executed in an automatic way. However, in situations where postural control requires more central processing, cognitive resources may be exceeded by the addition of an attentionally demanding task. This may lead to interference between the two tasks, manifested in a decreased performance in one or both tasks (dual-task costs). Owing to changes in attentional demands of postural tasks as well as processing capacities across the lifespan, it might be assumed that dual-task costs are particularly pronounced in children and older adults probably leading to a U-shaped pattern for dual-task costs as a function of age. However, these changes in the ability of dual-tasking posture from childhood to old age have not yet been systematically reviewed. Therefore, Web of Science and PubMed databases were searched for studies comparing dual-task performance with one task being standing or walking in healthy groups of young adults and either children or older adults. Seventy-nine studies met inclusion criteria. For older adults, the expected increase in dual-task costs could be confirmed. In contrast, in children there was only feeble evidence for a trend towards enlarged dual-task costs. More good-quality studies comparing dual-task ability in children, young, and, ideally, also older adults within the same paradigm are needed to draw unambiguous conclusions about lifespan development of dual-task performance in postural tasks. There is evidence that, in older adults, dual-task performance can be improved by training. For the other age groups, these effects have yet to be investigated.

Article	Year
Time to task failure and motor cortical activity depend on the type of feedback in visuomotor tasks. PloS one\| PubMed ID: 22427836	2012
Sustained cycling exercise increases intracortical inhibition. Medicine and science in sports and exercise\| PubMed ID: 23190593	2013
Specific interpretation of augmented feedback changes motor performance and cortical processing. Experimental brain research\| PubMed ID: 23525572	2013
Mechanical instability destabilises the ankle joint directly in the ankle-sprain mechanism. British journal of sports medicine\| PubMed ID: 24124039	2014
Cross-limb interference during motor learning. PloS one\| PubMed ID: 24312523	2013
Improving motor performance: selected aspects of augmented feedback in exercise and health. European journal of sport science\| PubMed ID: 24533493	2014
Jump performance and augmented feedback: immediate benefits and long-term training effects. Human movement science\| PubMed ID: 24875045	2014
Reciprocal activation of gastrocnemius and soleus motor units is associated with fascicle length change during knee flexion. Physiological reports\| PubMed ID: 24920126	2014
Enhanced jump performance when providing augmented feedback compared to an external or internal focus of attention. Journal of sports sciences\| PubMed ID: 25529245	2015
Changes in Standing and Walking Performance Under Dual-Task Conditions Across the Lifespan. Sports medicine (Auckland, N.Z.)\| PubMed ID: 26253187	2015

Benedikt Lauber

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