the-emotional-stroop-task-assessing-cognitive-performance-under

The Emotional Stroop Task: Assessing Cognitive Performance under Exposure to Emotional Content

The emotional Stroop effect (ESE) is the result of longer naming latencies to ink colors of emotion words than to ink colors of neutral words. The ...

University of Newcastle

Systems factorial technology (SFT) is a theory-driven set of methodologies oriented toward identification of basic mechanisms, such as parallel versus serial processing, of perception and cognition. Studies employing SFT in visual search with small display sizes have repeatedly shown decisive evidence for parallel processing. The first strong evidence for serial processing was recently found in short-term memory search, using target-distractor (T-D) similarity as a key experimental variable (Townsend & Fifić, 2004). One of the major goals of the present study was to employ T-D similarity in visual search to learn whether this mode of manipulating processing speed would affect the parallel versus serial issue in that domain. The result was a surprising and regular departure from ordinary parallel or serial processing. The most plausible account at present relies on the notion of positively interacting parallel channels.

Studying visual search using systems factorial methodology with target-distractor similarity as the factor.

People are especially efficient in processing certain visual stimuli such as human faces or good configurations. It has been suggested that topology and geometry play important roles in configural perception. Visual search is one area in which configurality seems to matter. When either of 2 target features leads to a correct response and the sequence includes trials in which either or both targets are present, the result is a redundant-target paradigm. It is common for such experiments to find faster performance with the double target than with either alone, something that is difficult to explain with ordinary serial models. This redundant-targets study uses figures that can be dissimilar in their topology and geometry and manipulates the stimulus set and the stimulus?response assignments. The authors found that the combination of higher order similarity (e.g., topological) among the features in the stimulus set and response assignment can effectively overpower or facilitate the redundant-target effect, depending on the exact nature of the former characteristics. Several reasonable models of redundant-targets performance are falsified. Parallel models with the potential for channel interactions are supported by the data.

Where similarity beats redundancy: the importance of context, higher order similarity, and response assignment.

A huge set of focused attention experiments show that when presented with color words printed in color, observers report the ink color faster if the carrier word is the name of the color rather than the name of an alternative color, the Stroop effect. There is also a large number (although not so numerous as the Stroop task) of so-called "redundant targets studies" that are based on divided attention instructions. These almost always indicate that observers report the presence of a visual target ('redness' in the stimulus) faster if there are two replications of the target (the word RED in red ink color) than if only one is present (RED in green or GREEN in red). The present set of four experiments employs the same stimuli and same participants in both designs. Evidence supports the traditional interference account of the Stroop effect, but also supports a non-interference parallel processing account of the word and the color in the divided attention task. Theorists are challenged to find a unifying model that parsimoniously explains both seemingly contradictory results.

Comparing perception of Stroop stimuli in focused versus divided attention paradigms: evidence for dramatic processing differences.

Does processing more than one stimulus concurrently impede or facilitate performance relative to processing just one stimulus? This fundamental question about workload capacity was surprisingly difficult to address empirically until Townsend and Nozawa (1995) developed a set of nonparametric analyses called systems factorial technology. We develop an alternative parametric approach based on the linear ballistic accumulator decision model (Brown & Heathcote, 2008), which uses the model's parameter estimates to measure processing capacity. We show that these two methods have complementary strengths, and that, in a data set where participants varied greatly in capacity, the two approaches provide converging evidence.

Converging measures of workload capacity.

Systems Factorial Technology is a powerful framework for investigating the fundamental properties of human information processing such as architecture (i.e., serial or parallel processing) and capacity (how processing efficiency is affected by increased workload). The Survivor Interaction Contrast (SIC) and the Capacity Coefficient are effective measures in determining these underlying properties, based on response-time data. Each of the different architectures, under the assumption of independent processing, predicts a specific form of the SIC along with some range of capacity. In this study, we explored SIC predictions of discrete-state (Markov process) and continuous-state (Linear Dynamic) models that allow for certain types of cross-channel interaction. The interaction can be facilitatory or inhibitory: one channel can either facilitate, or slow down processing in its counterpart. Despite the relative generality of these models, the combination of the architecture-oriented plus the capacity oriented analyses provide for precise identification of the underlying system.

Nice Guys Finish Fast and Bad Guys Finish Last: Facilitatory vs. Inhibitory Interaction in Parallel Systems.

Increasing the number of available sources of information may impair or facilitate performance, depending on the capacity of the processing system. Tests performed on response time distributions are proving to be useful tools in determining the workload capacity (as well as other properties) of cognitive systems. In this article, we develop a framework and relevant mathematical formulae that represent different capacity assays (Miller's race model bound, Grice's bound, and Townsend's capacity coefficient) in the same space. The new space allows a direct comparison between the distinct bounds and the capacity coefficient values and helps explicate the relationships among the different measures. An analogous common space is proposed for the AND paradigm, relating the capacity index to the Colonius-Vorberg bounds. We illustrate the effectiveness of the unified spaces by presenting data from two simulated models (standard parallel, coactive) and a prototypical visual detection experiment. A conversion table for the unified spaces is provided.

Workload capacity spaces: a unified methodology for response time measures of efficiency as workload is varied.

Identification thresholds and the corresponding efficiencies (ideal/human thresholds) are typically computed by collapsing data across an entire stimulus set within a given task in order to obtain a "multiple-item" summary measure of information use. However, some individual stimuli may be processed more efficiently than others, and such differences are not captured by conventional multiple-item threshold measurements. Here, we develop and present a technique for measuring "single-item" identification efficiencies. The resulting measure describes the ability of the human observer to make use of the information provided by a single stimulus item within the context of the larger set of stimuli. We applied this technique to the identification of 3-D rendered objects (Exp. 1) and Roman alphabet letters (Exp. 2). Our results showed that efficiency can vary markedly across stimuli within a given task, demonstrating that single-item efficiency measures can reveal important information that is lost by conventional multiple-item efficiency measures.

Measuring single-item identification efficiencies for letters and 3-D objects.

Simultaneously presented signals may be processed in serial or in parallel. One potentially valuable indicator of a system's characteristics may be the appearance of multimodality in the response time (RT) distributions. It is known that standard serial models can predict multimodal RT distributions, but it is unknown whether multimodality is diagnostic of serial systems, or whether alternative architectures, such as parallel ones, can also make such predictions. We demonstrate via simulations that a multimodal RT distribution is not sufficient by itself to rule out parallel self-terminating processing, even with limited trial numbers. These predictions are discussed within the context of recent data indicating the existence of multimodal distributions in visual search.

The resurrection of Tweedledum and Tweedledee: bimodality cannot distinguish serial and parallel processes.

The presence of the Stroop effect betrays the fact that the carrier words were read in the face of instructions to ignore them and to respond to the target ink colors. In this study, we probed the nature of this involuntary reading by comparing color performance with that in a new forced-reading Stroop task in which responding is strictly contingent on reading each and every word. We found larger Stroop effects in the forced-reading task than in the classic Stroop task and concluded that words are processed to a shallower level in the Stroop task than they are in routine voluntary reading. The results show that the two modes of word processing differ in systematic ways and are conductive to qualitatively different representations. These results can pose a challenge to the strongly automatic view of word reading in the Stroop task.

Depth of processing in the stroop task: evidence from a novel forced-reading condition.

This investigation brings together a response-time system identification methodology (e.g., Townsend & Wenger Psychonomic Bulletin & Review 11, 391-418, 2004a) and an accuracy methodology, intended to assess models of integration across stimulus dimensions (features, modalities, etc.) that were proposed by Shaw and colleagues (e.g., Mulligan & Shaw Perception & Psychophysics 28, 471-478, 1980). The goal was to theoretically examine these separate strategies and to apply them conjointly to the same set of participants. The empirical phases were carried out within an extension of an established experimental design called the double factorial paradigm (e.g., Townsend & Nozawa Journal of Mathematical Psychology 39, 321-359, 1995). That paradigm, based on response times, permits assessments of architecture (parallel vs. serial processing), stopping rule (exhaustive vs. minimum time), and workload capacity, all within the same blocks of trials. The paradigm introduced by Shaw and colleagues uses a statistic formally analogous to that of the double factorial paradigm, but based on accuracy rather than response times. We demonstrate that the accuracy measure cannot discriminate between parallel and serial processing. Nonetheless, the class of models supported by the accuracy data possesses a suitable interpretation within the same set of models supported by the response-time data. The supported model, consistent across individuals, is parallel and has limited capacity, with the participants employing the appropriate stopping rule for the experimental setting.

Evaluating perceptual integration: uniting response-time- and accuracy-based methodologies.

Erratum to: Evaluating perceptual integration: uniting response-time and accuracy-based methodologies.

In the redundant target effect, participants respond faster with two (redundant) targets. We compared the magnitude of this effect in younger and older adults, with and without distractors, in a simple visual-detection task. We employed additional measures that allow non-parametric assessment of performance (Townsend's capacity coefficient) and parametric estimates (Linear Ballistic Accumulator model). Older participants' latencies were slower, especially in the presence of distractors, and their calculated capacity indicators increased with distractors. Parametric estimates indicated that these increases were generated by the older adults' increased difficulty in inhibiting the distractors, and not the results of either improved detection of redundant-targets, or of a generalized slowing of processing.

Effects of aging and distractors on detection of redundant visual targets and capacity: do older adults integrate visual targets differently than younger adults?

We examined the role of dual-task interference in working memory using a novel dual two-back task that requires a redundant-target response (i.e., a response that neither the auditory nor the visual stimulus occurred two back versus a response that one or both occurred two back) on every trial. Comparisons with performance on single two-back trials (i.e., with only auditory or only visual stimuli) showed that dual-task demands reduced both speed and accuracy. Our task design enabled a novel application of Townsend and Nozawa's (Journal of Mathematical Psychology 39: 321-359, 1995) workload capacity measure, which revealed that the decrement in dual two-back performance was mediated by the sharing of a limited amount of processing capacity. Relative to most other single and dual n-back tasks, performance measures for our task were more reliable, due to the use of a small stimulus set that induced a high and constant level of proactive interference. For a version of our dual two-back task that minimized response bias, accuracy was also more strongly correlated with complex span than has been found for most other single and dual n-back tasks.

Working memory's workload capacity.

While there is widespread agreement among vision researchers on the importance of some local aspects of visual stimuli, such as hue and intensity, there is no general consensus on a full set of basic sources of information used in perceptual tasks or how they are processed. Gestalt theories place particular value on emergent features, which are based on the higher-order relationships among elements of a stimulus rather than local properties. Thus, arbitrating between different accounts of features is an important step in arbitrating between local and Gestalt theories of perception in general. In this paper, we present the capacity coefficient from Systems Factorial Technology (SFT) as a quantitative approach for formalizing and rigorously testing predictions made by local and Gestalt theories of features. As a simple, easily controlled domain for testing this approach, we focus on the local feature of location and the emergent features of Orientation and Proximity in a pair of dots. We introduce a redundant-target change detection task to compare our capacity measure on (1) trials where the configuration of the dots changed along with their location against (2) trials where the amount of local location change was exactly the same, but there was no change in the configuration. Our results, in conjunction with our modeling tools, favor the Gestalt account of emergent features. We conclude by suggesting several candidate information-processing models that incorporate emergent features, which follow from our approach.

Can two dots form a Gestalt? Measuring emergent features with the capacity coefficient.

Best practice in understanding and caring for people with advanced Alzheimer's disease presents extraordinary challenges. Their severe and deteriorating cognitive impairments are such that carers find progressive difficulty in authentically ascertaining and responding to interests, preferences, and needs. Deep assessment, a novel multifaceted framework drawn from research into the experiences of others with severe cognitive impairments, has potential to empower carers and other support professionals to develop an enhanced understanding of people with advanced Alzheimer's disease and so deliver better calibrated care in attempts to maximize quality of life. Deep assessment uses a combination of techniques, namely, Behaviour State Observation, Triangulated Proxy Reporting, and Startle Reflex Modulation Measurement, to deliver a comprehensive and deep assessment of the inner states (awareness, preferences, likes, and dislikes) of people who cannot reliably self-report. This paper explains deep assessment and its current applications. It then suggests how it can be applied to people with advanced Alzheimer's disease to develop others' understanding of their inner states and to help improve their quality of life. An illustrative hypothetical vignette is used to amplify this framework. We discuss the potential utility and efficacy of this technique for this population and we also propose other human conditions that may benefit from research using a deep assessment approach.

Article	Year
Studying visual search using systems factorial methodology with target-distractor similarity as the factor. Perception & psychophysics\| PubMed ID: 18556921	2008
Where similarity beats redundancy: the importance of context, higher order similarity, and response assignment. Journal of experimental psychology. Human perception and performance\| PubMed ID: 19045985	2008
Comparing perception of Stroop stimuli in focused versus divided attention paradigms: evidence for dramatic processing differences. Cognition\| PubMed ID: 19733840	2010
Converging measures of workload capacity. Psychonomic bulletin & review\| PubMed ID: 21169566	2010
Nice Guys Finish Fast and Bad Guys Finish Last: Facilitatory vs. Inhibitory Interaction in Parallel Systems. Journal of mathematical psychology\| PubMed ID: 21516183	2011
Workload capacity spaces: a unified methodology for response time measures of efficiency as workload is varied. Psychonomic bulletin & review\| PubMed ID: 21607804	2011
Measuring single-item identification efficiencies for letters and 3-D objects. Behavior research methods\| PubMed ID: 24254880	2014
The resurrection of Tweedledum and Tweedledee: bimodality cannot distinguish serial and parallel processes. Psychonomic bulletin & review\| PubMed ID: 24614966	2014
Depth of processing in the stroop task: evidence from a novel forced-reading condition. Experimental psychology\| PubMed ID: 24836124	2014
Evaluating perceptual integration: uniting response-time- and accuracy-based methodologies. Attention, perception & psychophysics\| PubMed ID: 25366823	2015
Erratum to: Evaluating perceptual integration: uniting response-time and accuracy-based methodologies. Attention, perception & psychophysics\| PubMed ID: 25465398	2015
Effects of aging and distractors on detection of redundant visual targets and capacity: do older adults integrate visual targets differently than younger adults? PloS one\| PubMed ID: 25501850	2014
Working memory's workload capacity. Memory & cognition\| PubMed ID: 25962602	2015
Can two dots form a Gestalt? Measuring emergent features with the capacity coefficient. Vision research\| PubMed ID: 25986994	2015
Deep Assessment: A Novel Framework for Improving the Care of People with Very Advanced Alzheimer's Disease. BioMed research international\| PubMed ID: 26688817	2015

Ami Eidels

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