semi-automated-analysis-mouse-skeletal-muscle-morphology-fiber-type

Semi-automated Analysis of Mouse Skeletal Muscle Morphology and Fiber-type Composition

For years, distinctions between skeletal muscle fiber types were best visualized by myosin-ATPase staining. More recently, immunohistochemical staining of ...

University of Colorado School of Medicine

Effects of the mGlu(4) receptor allosteric modulator N-phenyl-7-(hydroxyimino)cyclopropa[b]chromen-1a-carboxamide (PHCCC) were tested on closely related mGlu6 receptors. Modulation of native calcium currents in isolated sympathetic neurons from rat superior cervical ganglion by expressed mGlu(4) and mGlu(6) receptor was used to assay receptor activity. Glutamate concentration-response curves with and without PHCCC confirmed that the drug is an allosteric modulator of mGlu(4) receptor, without direct agonist activity. Conversely, PHCCC directly activates the mGlu(6) receptor and does not enhance activity of glutamate. Therefore, PHCCC is a direct mGlu(6) receptor agonist, but lacks allosteric modulatory properties.

The mGlu(4) receptor allosteric modulator N-phenyl-7-(hydroxyimino)cyclopropa[b]chromen-1a-carboxamide acts as a direct agonist at mGlu(6) receptors.

The highly specialized metabotropic glutamate receptor type 6 (mGluR6) is postsynaptically localized and expressed only in the dendrites of ON bipolar cells. Upon activation of mGluR6 by glutamate released from photoreceptors, a nonselective cation channel is inhibited, causing these cells to hyperpolarize. Mutations in this gene have been implicated in the development of congenital stationary night blindness type 1 (CSNB1). We investigated five known mGluR6 point mutants that lead to CSNB1 to determine the molecular mechanism of each phenotype. In agreement with other studies, four mutants demonstrated trafficking impairment. However, mGluR6 E775K (E781K in humans) suggested no trafficking or signaling deficiencies measured by our initial assays. Most importantly, our results indicate a switch in G-protein coupling, in which E775K loses G(o) coupling but retains coupling to G(i), which may explain the phenotype.

Altered G-protein coupling in an mGluR6 point mutant associated with congenital stationary night blindness.

Metabotropic glutamate receptors (mGluRs) form covalently linked homodimers and contain large, N-terminal extracellular ligand binding, "venus fly trap" (VFT) domains. These domains, when expressed separately, are secreted as disulfide linked dimers and can dimerize with full-length receptors. mGluR splice variants have been described that contain only this domain, but the consequences of their interaction on receptor signaling have not been explored. Here it is shown that an mGluR1 mutant containing only the VFT is retained on the cell surface when a full-length receptor is co-expressed. Further, when expressed in rat superior cervical ganglion (SCG) neurons and modulation of native calcium currents is used as an assay for receptor activity, the VFT acts as a dominant negative with respect to mGluR1 signaling. Although full-length mGluR1 and mGluR5 are not known to heterodimerize, the mGluR5 VFT partially occludes mGluR1 signaling and the mGluR1 VFT potently occludes mGluR5 signaling in SCG neurons. In addition, an mGluR1 point mutant, mGluR1 C140G, which cannot covalently dimerize, functions like the wild-type receptor when expressed alone. The C140G mutant is inhibited by the mGluR1 VFT construct but does not retain the mGluR1 VFT on the cell surface, suggesting that the loss of C140 renders the interaction reversible. Finally, a peptide designed to disrupt mGluR1 dimerization reduced signaling through the C140G mutant receptor, but only when applied intracellularly for several hours, indicating that loss of signaling requires disruption of dimerization prior to plasma membrane insertion.

Venus fly trap domain of mGluR1 functions as a dominant negative against group I mGluR signaling.

Group I metabotropic glutamate receptors (mGluR1 and 5) are G protein coupled receptors that regulate neuronal activity in a number of ways. Some of the most well studied functions of group I mGluRs, such as initiation of multiple forms of mGluR-dependent long-term depression, require receptor localization near the post-synaptic density (PSD). This localization is in turn dependent on the Homer family of scaffolding proteins which bind to a small motif on the distal C-termini of mGluR1 and 5, localize the receptors near the PSD, strengthen coupling to post-synaptic effectors and simultaneously uncouple the mGluRs from extra-synaptic effectors such as voltage dependent ion channels. Here the selectivity of this uncoupling process was examined by testing the ability of Homer-2b to uncouple mGluR1 from multiple voltage dependent calcium channels including Ca(V2.2) (N-type), Ca(V3.2) (T-type), and Ca(V2.1) (P/Q-type) expressed in rat sympathetic neurons from the superior cervical ganglion (SCG). Of these, only the mGluR1-Ca(V2.1) modulatory pathway was insensitive to Homer-2b expression. Uncoupling from this channel was achieved by co-expression of an mGluR1 C-terminal protein designed to disrupt a previously described direct interaction between these two proteins, suggesting that this interaction allows incorporation of Ca(V2.1) into the mGluR1/Homer signaling complex, thereby preserving modulation in the presence of scaffolding Homer proteins. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled 'Metabotropic Glutamate Receptors'.

The interaction between mGluR1 and the calcium channel Cav₂.₁ preserves coupling in the presence of long Homer proteins.

Three physiological functions have been described for the skeletal muscle 1,4-dihydropyridine receptor (Ca(V)1.1):(1) voltage-sensor for excitation-contraction (EC) coupling, (2) L-type Ca(2+) channel, and (3) voltage-sensor for slow depolarization-dependent Ca(2+) entry. Members of the RGK (Rad, Rem, Rem2, Gem/Kir) family of monomeric GTP-binding proteins are potent inhibitors of the former two functions of Ca(V)1.1. However, it is not known whether the latter function that has been attributed to Ca(V)1.1 is subject to modulation by RGK proteins. Thus, the purpose of this study was to determine whether Rad, Gem and/or Rem inhibit the slowly developing, persistent Ca(2+) entry that is dependent on the voltage-sensing capability of Ca(V)1.1. As a means to investigate this question, Venus fluorescent protein-fused RGK proteins(V-Rad, V-Rem and V-Gem) were overexpressed in “normal” mouse myotubes. We observed that such overexpression of V-Rad, V-Rem or V-Gem in myotubes caused marked changes in morphology of the cells. As shown previously for YFPRem,both L-type current and EC coupling were also impaired greatly in myotubes expressing either V-Rad or V-Gem. There ductions in L-type current and EC coupling were paralleled by reductions in depolarization-induced Ca(2+) entry. Our observations provide the first evidence of modulation of this enigmatic Ca(2+) entry pathway peculiar to skeletal muscle.

RGK protein-mediated impairment of slow depolarization- dependent Ca2+ entry into developing myotubes.

Members of the Rem, Rem2, Rad, Gem/Kir (RGK) family of small GTP-binding proteins inhibit high-voltage-activated (HVA) Ca(2+) channels through interactions with both the principal α1 and the auxiliary β subunits of the channel complex. Three highly conserved residues of Rem (R200, L227, and H229) have been shown in vitro to be critical for interactions with β subunits. However, the functional significance of these residues is not known. To investigate the contributions of R200, L227, and H229 to β subunit-mediated RGK protein-dependent inhibition of HVA channels, we introduced alanine substitutions into all three positions of Venus fluorescent protein-tagged Rem (V-Rem AAA) and made three other V-Rem constructs with an alanine introduced at only one position (V-Rem R200A, V-Rem L227A, and V-Rem H229A). Confocal imaging and immunoblotting demonstrated that each Venus-Rem mutant construct had comparable expression levels to Venus-wild-type Rem when heterologously expressed in tsA201 cells. In electrophysiological experiments, V-Rem AAA failed to inhibit N-type Ca(2+) currents in tsA201 cells coexpressing CaV2.2 α1B, β3, and α2δ-1 channel subunits. The V-Rem L227A single mutant also failed to reduce N-type currents conducted by coexpressed CaV2.2 channels, a finding consistent with the previous observation that a leucine at position 227 is critical for Rem-β interactions. Rem-dependent inhibition of CaV2.2 channels was impaired to a much lesser extent by the R200A substitution. In contrast to the earlier work demonstrating that Rem H229A was unable to interact with β3 subunits in vitro, V-Rem H229A produced nearly complete inhibition of CaV2.2-mediated currents.

Functional assessment of three Rem residues identified as critical for interactions with Ca(2+) channel β subunits.

In skeletal muscle, excitation-contraction (EC) coupling requires depolarization-induced conformational rearrangements in L-type Ca(2+) channel (Ca(V)1.1) to be communicated to the type 1 ryanodine-sensitive Ca(2+) release channel (RYR1) of the sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) via transient protein-protein interactions. Although the molecular mechanism that underlies conformational coupling between Ca(V)1.1 and RYR1 has been investigated intensely for more than 25 years, the question of whether such signaling occurs via a direct interaction between the principal, voltage-sensing α(1S) subunit of Ca(V)1.1 and RYR1 or through an intermediary protein persists. A substantial body of evidence supports the idea that the auxiliary β(1a) subunit of Ca(V)1.1 is a conduit for this intermolecular communication. However, a direct role for β(1a) has been difficult to test because β(1a) serves two other functions that are prerequisite for conformational coupling between Ca(V)1.1 and RYR1. Specifically, β(1a) promotes efficient membrane expression of Ca(V)1.1 and facilitates the tetradic ultrastructural arrangement of Ca(V)1.1 channels within plasma membrane-SR junctions. In this paper, we demonstrate that overexpression of the RGK protein Rem, an established β subunit-interacting protein, in adult mouse flexor digitorum brevis fibers markedly reduces voltage-induced myoplasmic Ca(2+) transients without greatly affecting Ca(V)1.1 targeting, intramembrane gating charge movement, or releasable SR Ca(2+) store content. In contrast, a β(1a)-binding-deficient Rem triple mutant (R200A/L227A/H229A) has little effect on myoplasmic Ca(2+) release in response to membrane depolarization. Thus, Rem effectively uncouples the voltage sensors of Ca(V)1.1 from RYR1-mediated SR Ca(2+) release via its ability to interact with β(1a). Our findings reveal Rem-expressing adult muscle as an experimental system that may prove useful in the definition of the precise role of the β(1a) subunit in skeletal-type EC coupling.

Rem uncouples excitation-contraction coupling in adult skeletal muscle fibers.

Defining the MO's of RGK proteins.

Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is an adult-onset neurodegenerative disorder that is typically fatal within 3-5 years of diagnosis. While motoneuron death is the defining characteristic of ALS, the events that underlie its pathology are not restricted to the nervous system. In this regard, ALS muscle atrophies and weakens significantly before presentation of neurological symptoms. Since the skeletal muscle L-type Ca(2+) channel (CaV1.1) is a key regulator of both mass and force, we investigated whether CaV1.1 function is impaired in the muscle of two distinct mouse models carrying an ALS-linked mutation.

Progressive impairment of CaV1.1 function in the skeletal muscle of mice expressing a mutant type 1 Cu/Zn superoxide dismutase (G93A) linked to amyotrophic lateral sclerosis.

Article	Year
The mGlu(4) receptor allosteric modulator N-phenyl-7-(hydroxyimino)cyclopropa[b]chromen-1a-carboxamide acts as a direct agonist at mGlu(6) receptors. European journal of pharmacology\| PubMed ID: 18593581	2008
Altered G-protein coupling in an mGluR6 point mutant associated with congenital stationary night blindness. Molecular pharmacology\| PubMed ID: 19666700	2009
Venus fly trap domain of mGluR1 functions as a dominant negative against group I mGluR signaling. Journal of neurophysiology\| PubMed ID: 20463192	2010
The interaction between mGluR1 and the calcium channel Cav₂.₁ preserves coupling in the presence of long Homer proteins. Neuropharmacology\| PubMed ID: 22659088	2013
RGK protein-mediated impairment of slow depolarization- dependent Ca2+ entry into developing myotubes. Channels (Austin, Tex.)\| PubMed ID: 24476902	2014
Functional assessment of three Rem residues identified as critical for interactions with Ca(2+) channel β subunits. Pflugers Archiv : European journal of physiology\| PubMed ID: 25771954	2015
Rem uncouples excitation-contraction coupling in adult skeletal muscle fibers. The Journal of general physiology\| PubMed ID: 26078055	2015
Defining the MO's of RGK proteins. Channels (Austin, Tex.)\| PubMed ID: 27249780	2016
Progressive impairment of CaV1.1 function in the skeletal muscle of mice expressing a mutant type 1 Cu/Zn superoxide dismutase (G93A) linked to amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. Skeletal muscle\| PubMed ID: 27340545	2016

Donald Beqollari

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