measurements-soil-carbon-neutron-gamma-analysis-static-scanning

Measurements of Soil Carbon by Neutron-Gamma Analysis in Static and Scanning Modes

The herein described application of the inelastic neutron scattering (INS) method for soil carbon analysis is based on the registration and analysis of ...

Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture

Although considerable effort is being spent studying exotic plant pests, little consideration has been given as to how invasive plants might react to the increasing concentration of CO(2) in the atmosphere. Tropical spiderwort (Commelina benghalensis L.) is considered one the world's worst weeds and is becoming more of a problem in agricultural settings of the southeastern USA. Growth responses of tropical spiderwort were evaluated using plants grown in containers with a soilless potting medium under ambient and elevated (ambient + 200 mumol mol(-)(1)) levels of CO(2) in open-top field chambers. Although plant height was unaffected by CO(2), leaf and flower number tended to increase (approximately 23%) when exposed to elevated CO(2). Aboveground plant parts exhibited significant increases in dry weight when exposed to high CO(2); leaf, flower, stem, and total shoot dry weights were increased by 36, 30, 48, and 44%, respectively. Total plant dry weight was increased by 41% for plants grown under high CO(2). Root dry weight and root length were unaffected by CO(2) concentration. Tropical spiderwort allocated more biomass to stems and tended to allocate less to roots when plants were exposed to high CO(2). Plant carbon concentration and content tended to be higher in CO(2)-enriched plants, whereas plant nitrogen concentration tended to be lower; thus, elevated CO(2)-grown plants had higher C/N ratios. Also, the amount of biomass produced per unit nitrogen was higher for plants exposed to elevated CO(2). The growth response of this plant is in the upper range typical for C3 plants.

Tropical spiderwort (Commelina benghalensis L.) increases growth under elevated atmospheric carbon dioxide.

Herbicide resistant weed populations have developed due to the repeated application of herbicides. Elevated concentrations of atmospheric CO2 can have positive effects on weed growth, but how rising CO2 might affect herbicide resistant weeds is not known. Ragweed (Ambrosia artemisiifolia L.) ecotypes known to be resistant or susceptible to glyphosate herbicide were exposed to either ambient or elevated (ambient +200 μ mol mol(-1)) concentrations of CO2 in open top chambers. Plants were harvested following 8 weeks of CO2 exposure; at this time, they had begun to exhibit disease symptoms including spots on leaves and stems. Elevated CO2 significantly increased top, root, and total plant biomass. Also, glyphosate resistant plants had significantly greater top, root, and total biomass than plants susceptible to the herbicide. There were no significant CO2 by ecotype interactions. Fungi from 13 genera were associated with ragweed, several of which can be either pathogens (i.e., Alternaria, Fusarium, Rhizoctonia), aiding the decline in health of the ragweed plants, or saprophytes existing on dead plant tissues. The common foliar disease powdery mildew was significantly higher on susceptible compared with resistant ragweed. Susceptible plants also showed an increased frequency of Rhizoctonia on leaves and Alternaria on stems; however, Fusarium occurred more frequently on resistant ragweed leaves. Fungi were not affected by CO2 concentration or its interaction with ecotype. This study reports the first information on the effects of elevated CO2 on growth of herbicide resistant weeds. This is also the first study examining the impact of herbicide resistance and elevated CO2 on fungi associated with weeds. What effects herbicide resistance might have on plant diseases and how rising atmospheric CO2 might impact these effects needs to be addressed, not only with important weeds but also with crops.

Effects of elevated CO2 on biomass and fungi associated with two ecotypes of ragweed (Ambrosia artemisiifolia L.).

Atmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide (CO2) have significantly increased over the past century and are expected to continue rising in the future. While elevated levels of CO2 will likely result in higher crop yields, weed growth is also highly likely to increase, which could increase the incidence of herbicide resistant biotypes. An experiment was conducted in 2012 to determine the effects of an elevated CO2 environment on glyphosate and halosulfuron efficacy for postemergence control of purple and yellow nutsedge (Cyperus rotundus L. and C. esculentus L.). Both species of nutsedge where grown in 3.0-L containers under either ambient or elevated (ambient + 200 μmol mol(-1)) CO2 in open-top field chambers and treated with either 0.5×, 1.0×, or 1.5× of the manufacturer's labeled rate of halosulfuron, glyphosate, or a tank mix of the two herbicides. The growth of both nutsedge species responded positively to elevated CO2, purple nutsedge had increased shoot and root dry weights and yellow nutsedge had increased shoot, root, and tuber dry weights and counts. Few treatment differences were observed among the herbicides at any of the rates tested. At 3 weeks following herbicide application, both purple and yellow nutsedge were adequately controlled by both herbicides and combinations at all rates tested, regardless of CO2 concentration. Based on this study, it is likely that predicted future CO2 levels will have little impact on the efficacy of single applications of halosulfuron or glyphosate for control of purple and yellow nutsedge at the growth stages described here, although scenarios demanding more persistent control efforts remain a question.

Control of yellow and purple nutsedge in elevated CO2 environments with glyphosate and halosulfuron.

The problem of gamma spectrum peak identification arises when conducting soil carbon analysis using the inelastic neutron scattering (INS) system. Some spectral peaks could be associated with radioisotopes appearing due to neutron activation of both the measurement system and soil samples. The investigation of "hot background" gamma spectra from the construction materials, whole measurement system, and soil samples over time showed that activation of (28)Al isotope can contribute noticeable additions to the soil neutron stimulated gamma spectra.

"Hot background" of the mobile inelastic neutron scattering system for soil carbon analysis.

Cogongrass [Imperata cylindrica (L.) P. Beauv] is an invasive C4 perennial grass which is listed as one of the top ten worst weeds in the world and is a major problem in the Southeast US. Five cogongrass ecotypes [Florida (FL), Hybrid (HY), Louisiana (LA), Mobile (MB), and North Alabama (NA)] collected across the Southeast and a red-tip (RT) ornamental variety were container grown for 6 months in open top chambers under ambient and elevated (ambient plus 200 ppm) atmospheric CO2. Elevated CO2 increased average dry weight (13%) which is typical for grasses. Elevated CO2 increased height growth and both nitrogen and water use efficiencies, but lowered tissue nitrogen concentration; again, these are typical plant responses to elevated CO2. The HY ecotype tended to exhibit the greatest growth (followed by LA, NA, and FL ecotypes) whiles the RT and MB ecotypes were smallest. Interactions of CO2 with ecotype generally showed that the HY, LA, FL, and/or NA ecotypes showed a positive response to CO2 while the MB and RT ecotypes did not. Cogongrass is a problematic invasive weed in the southeastern U.S. and some ecotypes may become more so as atmospheric CO2 continues to rise.

Varied Growth Response of Cogongrass Ecotypes to Elevated CO2.

Inelastic neutron scattering (INS) was applied to determine soil carbon content. Due to non-uniform soil carbon depth distribution, the correlation between INS signals with some soil carbon content parameter is not obvious; however, a proportionality between INS signals and average carbon weight percent in ~10cm layer for any carbon depth profile is demonstrated using Monte-Carlo simulation (Geant4). Comparison of INS and dry combustion measurements confirms this conclusion. Thus, INS measurements give the value of this soil carbon parameter.

Application of Geant4 simulation for analysis of soil carbon inelastic neutron scattering measurements.

Three woody shrub species [cleyera (Ternstroemia gymnanthera Thunb. 'Conthery'), Indian hawthorn (Rhaphiolepis indica L.) and loropetalum (Loropetalum chinensis Oliv.'Ruby')] were container-grown for one growing season in 2008 using either pinebark (industry standard), clean chip residual or WholeTree (derived by-products from the forestry industry) as potting substrates and then transplanted into the landscape in 2008. An Automated Carbon Efflux System was used to continually monitor soil CO2 efflux from December 2010 through November 2011 in each species and substrate combination. Changes in soil carbon (C) levels as a result of potting substrate were assessed through soil sampling in 2009 and 2011 and plant biomass was determined at study conclusion. Results showed that soil CO2-C efflux was similar among all species and substrates, with few main effects of species or substrate observed throughout the study. Soil analysis showed that plots with pinebark contained higher levels of soil C in both 2009 and 2011, suggesting that pinebark decomposes slower than clean chip residual or WholeTree and consequently has greater C storage potential than the two alternative substrates. Results showed a net C gain for all species and substrate combinations; however, plants grown in pinebark had greater C sequestration potential.

Species and Media Effects on Soil Carbon Dynamics in the Landscape.

Soil pore structure has a strong influence on water retention, and is itself influenced by plant and microbial dynamics such as root proliferation and microbial exudation. Although increased nitrogen (N) availability and elevated atmospheric CO2 concentrations (eCO2 ) often have interacting effects on root and microbial dynamics, it is unclear whether these biotic effects can translate into altered soil pore structure and water retention. This study was based on a long-term experiment (7 yr at the time of sampling) in which a C4 pasture grass (Paspalum notatum) was grown on a sandy loam soil while provided factorial additions of N and CO2 . Through an analysis of soil aggregate fractal properties supported by 3D microtomographic imagery, we found that N fertilization induced an increase in intra-aggregate porosity and a simultaneous shift toward greater accumulation of pore space in larger aggregates. These effects were enhanced by eCO2 and yielded an increase in water retention at pressure potentials near the wilting point of plants. However, eCO2 alone induced changes in the opposite direction, with larger aggregates containing less pore space than under control conditions, and water retention decreasing accordingly. Results on biotic factors further suggested that organic matter gains or losses induced the observed structural changes. Based on our results, we postulate that the pore structure of many mineral soils could undergo N-dependent changes as atmospheric CO2 concentrations rise, having global-scale implications for water balance, carbon storage, and related rhizosphere functions.

Nitrogen-mediated effects of elevated CO2 on intra-aggregate soil pore structure.

Computer Monte-Carlo (MC) simulations (Geant4) of neutron propagation and acquisition of gamma response from soil samples was applied to evaluate INS system performance characteristic [minimal detectible level (MDL), sensitivity] for soil carbon measurement. The INS system model with best performance characteristics was determined based on MC simulation results. Measurements of MDL using an experimental prototype based on this model demonstrated good agreement with simulated data. This prototype will be used as the base engineering design for a new INS system.

Article	Year
Tropical spiderwort (Commelina benghalensis L.) increases growth under elevated atmospheric carbon dioxide. Journal of environmental quality\| PubMed ID: 19244494	2009
Effects of elevated CO2 on biomass and fungi associated with two ecotypes of ragweed (Ambrosia artemisiifolia L.). Frontiers in plant science\| PubMed ID: 25309569	2014
Control of yellow and purple nutsedge in elevated CO2 environments with glyphosate and halosulfuron. Frontiers in plant science\| PubMed ID: 25653664	2015
"Hot background" of the mobile inelastic neutron scattering system for soil carbon analysis. Applied radiation and isotopes : including data, instrumentation and methods for use in agriculture, industry and medicine\| PubMed ID: 26595773	2016
Varied Growth Response of Cogongrass Ecotypes to Elevated CO2. Frontiers in plant science\| PubMed ID: 26779216	2015
Application of Geant4 simulation for analysis of soil carbon inelastic neutron scattering measurements. Applied radiation and isotopes : including data, instrumentation and methods for use in agriculture, industry and medicine\| PubMed ID: 27124122	2016
Species and Media Effects on Soil Carbon Dynamics in the Landscape. Scientific reports\| PubMed ID: 27140321	2016
Nitrogen-mediated effects of elevated CO2 on intra-aggregate soil pore structure. Global change biology\| PubMed ID: 27726258	2017
Applying Monte-Carlo simulations to optimize an inelastic neutron scattering system for soil carbon analysis. Applied radiation and isotopes : including data, instrumentation and methods for use in agriculture, industry and medicine\| PubMed ID: 28743068	2017

Stephen A. Prior

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