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Flow-assisted Dielectrophoresis: A Low Cost Method for the Fabrication of High Performance Solution-processable Nanowire Devices

Flow-assisted dielectrophoresis (DEP) is an efficient self-assembly method for the controllable and reproducible positioning, alignment, and selection of ...

University of Surrey

Existing inorganic materials for radiation sensors suffer from several drawbacks, including their inability to cover large curved areas, lack of tissue-equivalence, toxicity, and mechanical inflexibility. As an alternative to inorganics, poly(triarylamine) (PTAA) diodes have been evaluated for their suitability for detecting radiation via the direct creation of X-ray induced photocurrents. A single layer of PTAA is deposited on indium tin oxide (ITO) substrates, with top electrodes selected from Al, Au, Ni, and Pd. The choice of metal electrode has a pronounced effect on the performance of the device; there is a direct correlation between the diode rectification factor and the metal-PTAA barrier height. A diode with an Al contact shows the highest quality of rectifying junction, and it produces a high X-ray photocurrent (several nA) that is stable during continuous exposure to 50 kV Mo Kalpha X-radiation over long time scales, combined with a high signal-to-noise ratio with fast response times of less than 0.25 s. Diodes with a low band gap, 'Ohmic' contact, such as ITO/PTAA/Au, show a slow transient response. This result can be explained by the build-up of space charge at the metal-PTAA interface, caused by a high level of charge injection due to X-ray-induced carriers. These data provide new insights into the optimum selection of metals for Schottky contacts on organic materials, with wider applications in light sensors and photovoltaic devices.

Achieving a stable time response in polymeric radiation sensors under charge injection by X-rays.

We have successfully prepared mono- and bi-functionalized multiwall carbon nanotubes (MWCNT) with thiophene, amine and thiophene-amine groups. The dispersion of nanotubes has been enhanced and stable optimized dispersions in organic solvents were obtained. These functionalized nanotubes have been successfully incorporated into bulk heterojunction (BHJ) organic photovoltaic (OPV) cells with a poly (3-hexyl thiophene) (P3HT) and [6, 6]-phenyl-C(61)-butyric acid methyl ester (PCBM) photoactive blended layer. The incorporation of MWCNT with different functional groups, in the active layer, results in different cell performance with respect to a reference cell. A maximum power conversion efficiency of 2.5% is achieved with the inclusion of thiophene functionalized nanotubes. This improvement in the device performance is attributed to an extension of the exciton dissociation volume and charge transport properties through the nanotube percolation network in P3HT/CNT, PCBM/CNT or both phases. This is believed to be due to more efficient dispersion of the functionalized nanotubes within the photoactive composite layer.

The incorporation of mono- and bi-functionalized multiwall carbon nanotubes in organic photovoltaic cells.

Recently, a new family of low-cost x-radiation detectors have been developed, based on semiconducting polymer diodes, which are easy to process, mechanically flexible, relatively inexpensive, and able to cover large areas. To test their potential for radiotherapy applications such as beam monitors or dosimeters, as an alternative to the use of solid-state inorganic detectors, we present the direct detection of 6 MV x-rays from a medical linear accelerator using a thick film, semiconducting polymer detector. The diode was subjected to 4 ms pulses of 6 MV x-rays at a rate of 60 Hz, and produces a linear increase in photocurrent with increasing dose rate (from 16.7 to 66.7 mGy s(-1)). The sensitivity of the diode was found to range from 13 to 20 nC mGy(-1) cm(-3), for operating voltages from -50 to -150 V, respectively. The diode response was found to be stable after exposure to doses up to 15 Gy. Testing beyond this dose range was not carried out. Theoretical calculations show that the addition of heavy metallic nanoparticles to polymer films, even at low volume fractions, increases the x-ray sensitivity of the polymer film/nanoparticle composite so that it exceeds that for silicon over a wide range of x-ray energies. The possibility of detecting x-rays with energies relevant to medical oncology applications opens up the potential for these polymer detectors to be used in detection and imaging applications using medical x-ray beams.

Direct detection of 6 MV x-rays from a medical linear accelerator using a semiconducting polymer diode.

Charge transport in organic semiconductors is strongly dependent on the molecular orientation and packing, such that manipulation of this molecular packing is a proven technique for enhancing the charge mobility in organic transistors. However, quantitative measurements of molecular orientation in micrometre-scale structures are experimentally challenging. Several research groups have suggested polarised Raman spectroscopy as a suitable technique for these measurements and have been able to partially characterise molecular orientations using one or two orientation parameters. Here we demonstrate a new approach that allows quantitative measurements of molecular orientations in terms of three parameters, offering the complete characterisation of a three-dimensional orientation. We apply this new method to organic semiconductor molecules in a single crystal field-effect transistor in order to correlate the measured orientation with charge carrier mobility measurements. This approach offers the opportunity for micrometre resolution (diffraction limited) spatial mapping of molecular orientation using bench-top apparatus, enabling a rational approach towards controlling this orientation to achieve optimum device performance.

Precise Characterisation of Molecular Orientation in a Single Crystal Field-Effect Transistor Using Polarised Raman Spectroscopy.

Single-crystal semiconductors have been at the forefront of scientific interest for more than 70 years, serving as the backbone of electronic devices. Inorganic single crystals are typically grown from a melt using time-consuming and energy-intensive processes. Organic semiconductor single crystals, however, can be grown using solution-based methods at room temperature in air, opening up the possibility of large-scale production of inexpensive electronics targeting applications ranging from field-effect transistors and light-emitting diodes to medical X-ray detectors. Here we demonstrate a low-cost, scalable spray-printing process to fabricate high-quality organic single crystals, based on various semiconducting small molecules on virtually any substrate by combining the advantages of antisolvent crystallization and solution shearing. The crystals' size, shape and orientation are controlled by the sheer force generated by the spray droplets' impact onto the antisolvent's surface. This method demonstrates the feasibility of a spray-on single-crystal organic electronics.

Spray printing of organic semiconducting single crystals.

Mixed halide Perovskite solar cells (PSCs) are commonly produced by depositing PbCl2 and CH3NH3I from a common solvent followed by thermal annealing, which in an up-scaled manufacturing process is likely to take place under ambient conditions. However, it has been reported that, similar to the effects of thermal annealing, ambient humidity also affects the crystallisation behaviour and subsequent growth of the Perovskite films. This implies that both of these factors must be accounted for in solar cell production. In this work, we report for the first time the correlation between the annealing time, relative humidity (RH) and device performance for inverted, mixed halide CH3NH3PbI(3-x)Cl x PSCs with active area ≈1 cm(2). We find a trade-off between ambient humidity and the required annealing time to produce efficient solar cells, with low humidities needing longer annealing times and vice-versa. At around 20% RH, device performance weakly depends on annealing time, but at higher (30%-40% RH) or lower (0%-15% RH) humidities it is very sensitive. Processing in humid environments is shown to lead to the growth of both larger Perovskite grains and larger voids; similar to the effect of thermal annealing, which also leads to grain growth. Therefore, samples which are annealed for too long under high humidity show loss of performance due to low open circuit voltage caused by an increased number of shunt paths. Based on these results it is clear that humidity and annealing time are closely interrelated and both are important factors affecting the performance of PSCs. The findings of this work open a route for reduced annealing times to be employed by control of humidity; critical in roll-to-roll manufacture where low manufacturing time is preferred for cost reductions.

Article	Year
Achieving a stable time response in polymeric radiation sensors under charge injection by X-rays. ACS applied materials & interfaces\| PubMed ID: 20496869	2010
The incorporation of mono- and bi-functionalized multiwall carbon nanotubes in organic photovoltaic cells. Nanotechnology\| PubMed ID: 21576781	2011
Direct detection of 6 MV x-rays from a medical linear accelerator using a semiconducting polymer diode. Physics in medicine and biology\| PubMed ID: 23760010	2013
Precise Characterisation of Molecular Orientation in a Single Crystal Field-Effect Transistor Using Polarised Raman Spectroscopy. Scientific reports\| PubMed ID: 27619423	2016
Spray printing of organic semiconducting single crystals. Nature communications\| PubMed ID: 27874001	2016
Effects of ambient humidity on the optimum annealing time of mixed-halide Perovskite solar cells. Nanotechnology\| PubMed ID: 28119511	2017

Maxim Shkunov

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