monitoring-effect-osmotic-stress-on-secretory-vesicles

Monitoring the Effect of Osmotic Stress on Secretory Vesicles and Exocytosis

Amperometry recording of cells subjected to osmotic shock show that secretory cells respond to this physical stress by reducing the exocytosis activity ...

University of Gothenburg

The quantification of vesicular transmitter content is important for studying the mechanisms of neurotransmission and malfunction in disease, and yet it is incredibly difficult to measure the tiny amounts of neurotransmitters in the attoliter volume of a single vesicle, especially in the cell environment. We introduce a novel method, intracellular vesicle electrochemical cytometry. A nanotip conical carbon-fiber microelectrode was used to electrochemically measure the total content of electroactive neurotransmitters in individual nanoscale vesicles in single PC12 cells as these vesicles lysed on the electrode inside the living cell. The results demonstrate that only a fraction of the quantal neurotransmitter content is released during exocytosis. These data support the intriguing hypothesis that the vesicle does not open all the way during the normal exocytosis process, thus resulting in incomplete expulsion of the vesicular contents.

Quantitative measurement of transmitters in individual vesicles in the cytoplasm of single cells with nanotip electrodes.

The nerve terminals found in the body wall of Drosophila melanogaster larvae are readily accessible to experimental manipulation. We used the light-activated ion channel, channelrhodopsin-2, which is expressed by genetic manipulation in Type II varicosities to study octopamine release in Drosophila. We report the development of a method to measure neurotransmitter release from exocytosis events at individual varicosities in the Drosophila larval system by amperometry. A microelectrode was placed in a region of the muscle containing a varicosity and held at a potential sufficient to oxidize octopamine and the terminal stimulated by blue light. Optical stimulation of Type II boutons evokes exocytosis of octopamine, which is detected through oxidization at the electrode surface. We observe 22700±4200 molecules of octopamine released per vesicle. This system provides a genetically accessible platform to study the regulation of amine release at an intact synapse.

Electrochemical Measurements of Optogenetically Stimulated Quantal Amine Release from Single Nerve Cell Varicosities in Drosophila Larvae.

The mechanism of mammalian vesicle rupture onto the surface of a polarized carbon fiber microelectrode during electrochemical vesicle cytometry is investigated. It appears that following adsorption to the surface of the polarized electrode, electroporation leads to the formation of a pore at the interface between a vesicle and the electrode and this is shown to be potential dependent. The chemical cargo is then released through this pore to be oxidized at the electrode surface. This makes it possible to quantify the contents as it restricts diffusion away from the electrode and coulometric oxidation takes place. Using a bottom up approach, lipid-only transmitter-loaded liposomes were used to mimic native vesicles and the rupture events occurred much faster in comparison with native vesicles. Liposomes with added peptide in the membrane result in rupture events with a lower duration than that of liposomes and faster in comparison to native vesicles. Diffusional models have been developed and suggest that the trend in pore size is dependent on soft nanoparticle size and diffusion of the content in the nanometer vesicle. In addition, it appears that proteins form a barrier for the membrane to reach the electrode and need to move out of the way to allow close contact and electroporation. The protein dense core in vesicles matrixes is also important in the dynamics of the events in that it significantly slows diffusion through the vesicle.

On the mechanism of electrochemical vesicle cytometry: chromaffin cell vesicles and liposomes.

Electrochemical cytometry is a method developed recently to determine the content of an individual cell vesicle. The mechanism of vesicle rupture at the electrode surface involves the formation of a pore at the interface between a vesicle and the electrode through electroporation, which leads to the release and oxidation of the vesicle's chemical cargo. We have manipulated the membrane properties using excited fluorophores conjugated to lipids, which appears to make the membrane more susceptible to electroporation. We propose that by having excited fluorophores in close contact with the membrane, membrane lipids (and perhaps proteins) are oxidized upon production of reactive oxygen species, which then leads to changes in membrane properties and the formation of water defects. This is supported by experiments in which the fluorophores were placed on the lipid tail instead of the headgroup, which leads to a more rapid onset of vesicle opening. Additionally, application of DMSO to the vesicles, which increases the membrane area per lipid, and decreasing the membrane thickness result in the same enhancement in vesicle opening, which confirms the mechanism of vesicle opening with excited fluorophores in the membrane. Light-induced manipulation of membrane vesicle pore opening might be an attractive means of controlling cell activity and exocytosis. Additionally, our data confirm that in experiments in which cells or vesicle membranes are labeled for fluorescence monitoring, the properties of the excited membrane change substantially.

Excited Fluorophores Enhance the Opening of Vesicles at Electrode Surfaces in Vesicle Electrochemical Cytometry.

Secretory cells respond to hypertonic stress by cell shrinking, which causes a reduction in exocytosis activity and the amount of signaling molecules released from single exocytosis events. These changes in exocytosis have been suggested to result from alterations in biophysical properties of cell cytoplasm and plasma membrane, based on the assumption that osmotic stress does not affect the secretory vesicle content and size prior to exocytosis. To further investigate whether vesicles in secretory cells are affected by the osmolality of the extracellular environment, we used intracellular electrochemical cytometry together with transmission electron microscopy imaging to quantify and determine the catecholamine concentration of dense core vesicles in situ before and after cell exposure to osmotic stress. In addition, single cell amperometry recordings of exocytosis at chromaffin cells were used to monitor the effect on exocytosis activity and quantal release when cells were exposed to osmotic stress. Here we show that hypertonic stress hampers exocytosis secretion after the first pool of readily releasable vesicles have been fused and that extracellular osmotic stress causes catecholamine filled vesicles to shrink, mainly by reducing the volume of the halo solution surrounding the protein matrix in dense core vesicles. In addition, the vesicles demonstrate the ability to perform adjustments in neurotransmitter content during shrinking, and intracellular amperometry measurements in situ suggest that vesicles reduce the catecholamine content to maintain a constant concentration within the vesicle compartment. Hence, the secretory vesicles in the cell cytoplasm are highly affected and respond to extracellular osmotic stress, which gives a new perspective to the cause of reduction in quantal size by these vesicles when undergoing exocytosis.

Extracellular Osmotic Stress Reduces the Vesicle Size while Keeping a Constant Neurotransmitter Concentration.

We applied electrochemical techniques with nano-tip electrodes to show that micromolar concentrations of zinc not only trigger changes in the dynamics of exocytosis, but also vesicle content in a model cell line. The vesicle catecholamine content in PC12 cells is significantly decreased after 100 μm zinc treatment, but, catecholamine release during exocytosis remains nearly the same. This contrasts with the number of molecules stored in the exocytosis vesicles, which decreases, and we find that the amount of catecholamine released from zinc-treated cells reaches nearly 100 % content expelled. Further investigation shows that zinc slows down exocytotic release. Our results provide the missing link between zinc and the regulation of neurotransmitter release processes, which might be important in memory formation and storage.

Zinc Regulates Chemical-Transmitter Storage in Nanometer Vesicles and Exocytosis Dynamics as Measured by Amperometry.

Dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) is frequently used as a solvent in biological studies and as a vehicle for drug therapy; but the side effects of DMSO, especially on the cell environment, are not well understood, and controls with DMSO are not neutral at higher concentrations. Herein, electrochemical measurement techniques are applied to show that DMSO increases exocytotic neurotransmitter release, while leaving vesicular contents unchanged. In addition, the kinetics of release from DMSO-treated cells are faster than that of untreated ones. The results suggest that DMSO has a significant influence on the chemistry of the cell membrane, leading to alteration of exocytosis. A speculative chemical mechanism of the effect on the fusion pore during exocytosis is presented.

DMSO Chemically Alters Cell Membranes to Slow Exocytosis and Increase the Fraction of Partial Transmitter Released.

Three new tools are discussed for understanding chemical communication between cells and primarily to delve into the content and structure of nanometer transmitter vesicles. These are amperometric measurements of exocytosis, vesicle impact electrochemical cytometry, and intracellular vesicle impact electrochemical cytometry. These are combining in the end nanoscale mass spectrometry imaging to begin determination of vesicle structure. These methods have provided solid evidence for the concept of open and closed exocytosis leading to partial release of the vesicle content during normal exocytosis. They have also been used to discover cases where the fraction of transmitter released is not changed, and other cases where the vesicle transmitter fraction released is altered, as with zinc, thought to alter cognition. Overall, the combination of these methods is showing us details of vesicular processes that would not be measureable without these micro and nano electrochemical methods.

Article	Year
Quantitative measurement of transmitters in individual vesicles in the cytoplasm of single cells with nanotip electrodes. Angewandte Chemie (International ed. in English)\| PubMed ID: 26266819	2015
Electrochemical Measurements of Optogenetically Stimulated Quantal Amine Release from Single Nerve Cell Varicosities in Drosophila Larvae. Angewandte Chemie (International ed. in English)\| PubMed ID: 26387683	2015
On the mechanism of electrochemical vesicle cytometry: chromaffin cell vesicles and liposomes. Faraday discussions\| PubMed ID: 27711871	2016
Excited Fluorophores Enhance the Opening of Vesicles at Electrode Surfaces in Vesicle Electrochemical Cytometry. Angewandte Chemie (International ed. in English)\| PubMed ID: 27805774	2016
Extracellular Osmotic Stress Reduces the Vesicle Size while Keeping a Constant Neurotransmitter Concentration. ACS chemical neuroscience\| PubMed ID: 27966899	2017
Zinc Regulates Chemical-Transmitter Storage in Nanometer Vesicles and Exocytosis Dynamics as Measured by Amperometry. Angewandte Chemie (International ed. in English)\| PubMed ID: 28319311	2017
DMSO Chemically Alters Cell Membranes to Slow Exocytosis and Increase the Fraction of Partial Transmitter Released. Chembiochem : a European journal of chemical biology\| PubMed ID: 28834067	2017
Vesicle impact electrochemical cytometry compared to amperometric exocytosis measurements. Current opinion in electrochemistry\| PubMed ID: 29218327	2017

Soodabeh Majdi

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