a-novel-vitro-live-imaging-assay-astrocyte-mediated-phagocytosis

A Novel <em>In Vitro</em> Live-imaging Assay of Astrocyte-mediated Phagocytosis Using pH Indicator-conjugated Synaptosomes

Astrocytes are the major cell type in the brain and directly contact synapses and blood vessels. Although microglial cells have been considered the major ...

Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology

The strongest genetic risk factor influencing susceptibility to late-onset Alzheimer's disease (AD) is apolipoprotein E (APOE) genotype. APOE has three common isoforms in humans, E2, E3, and E4. The presence of two copies of the E4 allele increases risk by ∼12-fold whereas E2 allele is associated with an ∼twofold decreased risk for AD. These data put APOE central to AD pathophysiology, but it is not yet clear how APOE alleles modify AD risk. Recently we found that astrocytes, a major central nervous system cell type that produces APOE, are highly phagocytic and participate in normal synapse pruning and turnover. Here, we report a novel role for APOE in controlling the phagocytic capacity of astrocytes that is highly dependent on APOE isoform. APOE2 enhances the rate of phagocytosis of synapses by astrocytes, whereas APO4 decreases it. We also found that the amount of C1q protein accumulation in hippocampus, which may represent the accumulation of senescent synapses with enhanced vulnerability to complement-mediated degeneration, is highly dependent on APOE alleles: C1q accumulation was significantly reduced in APOE2 knock-in (KI) animals and was significantly increased in APOE4 KI animals compared with APOE3 KI animals. These studies reveal a novel allele-dependent role for APOE in regulating the rate of synapse pruning by astrocytes. They also suggest the hypothesis that AD susceptibility of APOE4 may originate in part from defective phagocytic capacity of astrocytes which accelerates the rate of accumulation of C1q-coated senescent synapses, enhancing synaptic vulnerability to classical-complement-cascade mediated neurodegeneration.

Novel allele-dependent role for APOE in controlling the rate of synapse pruning by astrocytes.

Reactive astrocytes are strongly induced by central nervous system (CNS) injury and disease, but their role is poorly understood. Here we show that a subtype of reactive astrocytes, which we termed A1, is induced by classically activated neuroinflammatory microglia. We show that activated microglia induce A1 astrocytes by secreting Il-1α, TNF and C1q, and that these cytokines together are necessary and sufficient to induce A1 astrocytes. A1 astrocytes lose the ability to promote neuronal survival, outgrowth, synaptogenesis and phagocytosis, and induce the death of neurons and oligodendrocytes. Death of axotomized CNS neurons in vivo is prevented when the formation of A1 astrocytes is blocked. Finally, we show that A1 astrocytes are abundant in various human neurodegenerative diseases including Alzheimer's, Huntington's and Parkinson's disease, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis and multiple sclerosis. Taken together these findings help to explain why CNS neurons die after axotomy, strongly suggest that A1 astrocytes contribute to the death of neurons and oligodendrocytes in neurodegenerative disorders, and provide opportunities for the development of new treatments for these diseases.

Neurotoxic reactive astrocytes are induced by activated microglia.

Ineffective myelin debris clearance is a major factor contributing to the poor regenerative ability of the central nervous system. In stark contrast, rapid clearance of myelin debris from the injured peripheral nervous system (PNS) is one of the keys to this system's remarkable regenerative capacity, but the molecular mechanisms driving PNS myelin clearance are incompletely understood. We set out to discover new pathways of PNS myelin clearance to identify novel strategies for activating myelin clearance in the injured central nervous system, where myelin debris is not cleared efficiently. Here we show that Schwann cells, the myelinating glia of the PNS, collaborate with hematogenous macrophages to clear myelin debris using TAM (Tyro3, Axl, Mer) receptor-mediated phagocytosis as well as autophagy. In a mouse model of PNS nerve crush injury, Schwann cells up-regulate TAM phagocytic receptors Axl and Mertk following PNS injury, and Schwann cells lacking both of these phagocytic receptors exhibit significantly impaired myelin phagocytosis both in vitro and in vivo. Autophagy-deficient Schwann cells also display reductions in myelin clearance after mouse nerve crush injury, as has been recently shown following nerve transection. These findings add a mechanism, Axl/Mertk-mediated myelin clearance, to the repertoire of cellular machinery used to clear myelin in the injured PNS. Given recent evidence that astrocytes express Axl and Mertk and have previously unrecognized phagocytic potential, this pathway may be a promising avenue for activating myelin clearance after CNS injury.

Schwann cells use TAM receptor-mediated phagocytosis in addition to autophagy to clear myelin in a mouse model of nerve injury.

Glial cells are receiving much attention since they have been recognized as important regulators of many aspects of brain function and disease. Recent evidence has revealed that two different glial cells, astrocytes and microglia, control synapse elimination under normal and pathological conditions via phagocytosis. Astrocytes use the MEGF10 and MERTK phagocytic pathways, and microglia use the classical complement pathway to recognize and eliminate unwanted synapses. Notably, glial phagocytosis also contributes to the clearance of disease-specific protein aggregates, such as β-amyloid, huntingtin, and α-synuclein. Here we reivew recent findings showing that glial cells are active regulators in brain functions through phagocytosis and that changes in glial phagocytosis contribute to the pathogenesis of various neurodegenerative diseases. A better understanding of the cellular and molecular mechanisms of glial phagocytosis in healthy and diseased brains will greatly improve our current approach in treating these diseases.

Article	Year
Novel allele-dependent role for APOE in controlling the rate of synapse pruning by astrocytes. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America\| PubMed ID: 27559087	2016
Neurotoxic reactive astrocytes are induced by activated microglia. Nature\| PubMed ID: 28099414	2017
Schwann cells use TAM receptor-mediated phagocytosis in addition to autophagy to clear myelin in a mouse model of nerve injury. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America\| PubMed ID: 28874532	2017
Phagocytic Roles of Glial Cells in Healthy and Diseased Brains. Biomolecules & therapeutics\| PubMed ID: 29316776	2018

Won-Suk Chung

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