a-method-for-investigating-change-blindness-in-pigeons-columba-livia

A Method for Investigating Change Blindness in Pigeons (<em>Columba Livia</em>)

Change blindness is a phenomenon of visual attention, whereby changes to a visual display go unnoticed under certain specific circumstances. While many ...

Whitman College

Pigeons categorized a moving target in terms of its speed and direction in an adaptation of the randomization procedure used to study human categorization behavior (Ashby & Maddox, 1998). The target moved according to vectors that were sampled with equal probabilities from two slightly overlapping bivariate normal distributions with the dimensions of speed and direction. On the average, pigeons categorized optimally in that they attended to either speed or direction alone, or divided attention between them, as was required by different reinforcement contingencies. Decision bounds were estimated for individual pigeons for each attentional task. Average slopes and y intercepts of these individually estimated decision bounds closely approximated the corresponding values for optimal decision bounds. There is therefore at least one task in which pigeons, on the average, display flexibility and quantitative precision in allocating attention to speed and direction when they categorize moving targets.

Categorizing a moving target in terms of its speed, direction, or both.

An avian analogue to human artificial or synthetic grammar learning (Reber, 1967) was developed. Pigeons viewed horizontal strings of three to eight colored letters. These strings either conformed to Reber's artificial grammar or violated it in one or two locations. Pigeons categorized the letter strings as grammatical (left keypeck) or nongrammatical (right keypeck). Overall accuracy of categorization was above chance to both familiar training strings and to novel transfer strings, thereby satisfying a conventional criterion for learning an abstract concept. The results support a multiple mechanisms point of view according to which pigeons, like humans, learn both abstract concepts and specific strings, or specific parts of strings, in artificial grammar learning tasks.

"Artificial grammar learning" in pigeons: a preliminary analysis.

In two experiments, we developed a new methodology for studying complex stimulus control by spatial sequences of letters generated by artificial grammars. An artificial grammar is a system of rules that defines which letter sequences or strings are "grammatical." In Experiment 1, pigeons learned to respond differently to strings conforming to a grammar versus strings that were nongrammatical distortions. Several different criteria all suggested that performance was controlled both by some short chunks of strings shared between reinforced training strings and novel transfer strings and by more complex sequential regularities. In Experiment 2, pigeons quickly and accurately learned to respond differently to strings conforming to one or the other of two different artificial grammars. As in Experiment 1, performance was controlled both by some short chunks and by more complex sequential regularities. The results are interpreted in terms of family resemblance and pose new goals for theories of complex stimulus control.

Artificial grammar learning in pigeons.

The "Monty Hall Dilemma" (MHD) is a well known probability puzzle in which a player tries to guess which of three doors conceals a desirable prize. After an initial choice is made, one of the remaining doors is opened, revealing no prize. The player is then given the option of staying with their initial guess or switching to the other unopened door. Most people opt to stay with their initial guess, despite the fact that switching doubles the probability of winning. A series of experiments investigated whether pigeons (Columba livia), like most humans, would fail to maximize their expected winnings in a version of the MHD. Birds completed multiple trials of a standard MHD, with the three response keys in an operant chamber serving as the three doors and access to mixed grain as the prize. Across experiments, the probability of gaining reinforcement for switching and staying was manipulated, and birds adjusted their probability of switching and staying to approximate the optimal strategy. Replication of the procedure with human participants showed that humans failed to adopt optimal strategies, even with extensive training.

Are birds smarter than mathematicians? Pigeons (Columba livia) perform optimally on a version of the Monty Hall Dilemma.

Experimental tasks designed to involve procedural memory are often rigid and unchanging, despite many reasons to expect that implicit learning processes can be flexible and support considerable variability. A version of the serial response time (SRT) task was developed, in which the locations of targets were probabilistically determined. Targets appeared in locations according to both a structured sequence and a cue validity parameter, and the time to respond to each target was measured. Pigeons (Columba livia) and humans (Homo sapiens) both showed response time facilitation at the highest tested value for cue validity, and the magnitude of that facilitation gradually weakened as cue validity was decreased. Both species showed evidence that response times were largely determined by the local predictabilities of individual cue locations. In addition, humans showed some evidence that explicit knowledge of the sequence affected response times, specifically when cue validity was 100%.

Flexible serial response learning by pigeons (Columba livia) and humans (Homo sapiens).

Change blindness is a phenomenon in which even obvious details in a visual scene change without being noticed. Although change blindness has been studied extensively in humans, we do not yet know if it is a phenomenon that also occurs in other animals. Thus, investigation of change blindness in a nonhuman species may prove to be valuable by beginning to provide some insight into its ultimate causes. Pigeons learned a change detection task in which pecks to the location of a change in a sequence of stimulus displays were reinforced. They were worse at detecting changes if the stimulus displays were separated by a brief interstimulus interval, during which the display was blank, and this primary result matches the general pattern seen in previous studies of change blindness in humans. A second experiment attempted to identify specific stimulus characteristics that most reliably produced a failure to detect changes. Change detection was more difficult when interstimulus intervals were longer and when the change was iterated fewer times.

Change detection and change blindness in pigeons (Columba livia).

Change blindness is a well-established phenomenon in humans, in which plainly visible changes in the environment go unnoticed. Recently a parallel change blindness phenomenon has been demonstrated in pigeons. The reported experiment follows up on this finding by investigating whether change salience affects change blindness in pigeons the same way it affects change blindness in humans. Birds viewed alternating displays of randomly generated lines back-projected onto three response keys, with one or more line features on a single key differing between consecutive displays. Change salience was manipulated by varying the number of line features that changed on the critical response key. Results indicated that change blindness is reduced if a change is made more salient, and this matches previous human results. Furthermore, accuracy patterns indicate that pigeons' effective search area expanded over the course of a trial to encompass a larger portion of the stimulus environment. Thus, the data indicate two important aspects of temporal cognition. First, the timing of a change has a profound influence on whether or not that change will be perceived. Second, pigeons appear to engage in a serial search for changes, in which additional time is required to search additional locations. 

Change blindness in pigeons (Columba livia): the effects of change salience and timing.

Change blindness is a phenomenon in which even obvious changes in a visual scene may go unnoticed. Recent research has indicated that this phenomenon may not be exclusive to humans. Two experiments investigated change blindness in pigeons, using a variant of the widely-used flicker task to investigate the influence of display timing on change blindness. Results indicate that the duration of time during which a stimulus display is visible influences change detection accuracy, with the effect due to additional search time. The results are discussed in relation to the value of comparative cognition and cross-species investigations of behavior.

The effect of display timing on change blindness in pigeons (Columba livia).

Change blindness is a phenomenon whereby changes to a stimulus are more likely go unnoticed under certain circumstances. Pigeons learned a change detection task, in which they observed sequential stimulus displays consisting of individual colors back-projected onto three response keys. The color of one response key changed during each sequence and pecks to the key that displayed the change were reinforced. Pigeons showed a change blindness effect, in that change detection accuracy was worse when there was an inter-stimulus interval interrupting the transition between consecutive stimulus displays. Birds successfully transferred to stimulus displays involving novel colors, indicating that pigeons learned a general change detection rule. Furthermore, analysis of responses to specific color combinations showed that pigeons could detect changes involving both spectral and non-spectral colors and that accuracy was better for changes involving greater differences in wavelength. These results build upon previous investigations of change blindness in both humans and pigeons and suggest that change blindness may be a general consequence of selective visual attention relevant to multiple species and stimulus dimensions.

Article	Year
Categorizing a moving target in terms of its speed, direction, or both. Journal of the experimental analysis of behavior\| PubMed ID: 12507003	2002
"Artificial grammar learning" in pigeons: a preliminary analysis. Learning & behavior\| PubMed ID: 18450072	2003
Artificial grammar learning in pigeons. Learning & behavior\| PubMed ID: 18543712	2008
Are birds smarter than mathematicians? Pigeons (Columba livia) perform optimally on a version of the Monty Hall Dilemma. Journal of comparative psychology (Washington, D.C. : 1983)\| PubMed ID: 20175592	2010
Flexible serial response learning by pigeons (Columba livia) and humans (Homo sapiens). Journal of comparative psychology (Washington, D.C. : 1983)\| PubMed ID: 21574691	2011
Change detection and change blindness in pigeons (Columba livia). Journal of comparative psychology (Washington, D.C. : 1983)\| PubMed ID: 24188621	2014
Change blindness in pigeons (Columba livia): the effects of change salience and timing. Frontiers in psychology\| PubMed ID: 26284021	2015
The effect of display timing on change blindness in pigeons (Columba livia). Journal of the experimental analysis of behavior\| PubMed ID: 26609796	2016
Pigeons (Columba livia) show change blindness in a color-change detection task. Animal cognition\| PubMed ID: 28429095	2017

Walter T. Herbranson

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