semi-quantitative-detection-rna-dependent-rna-polymerase-activity

Semi-quantitative Detection of RNA-dependent RNA Polymerase Activity of Human Telomerase Reverse Transcriptase Protein

Human telomerase reverse transcriptase (TERT) is the catalytic subunit of telomerase, and it elongates telomere through RNA-dependent DNA polymerase ...

National Cancer Center Research Institute

Constitutive expression of telomerase in human cells prevents the onset of senescence and crisis by maintaining telomere homeostasis. However, accumulating evidence suggests that the human telomerase reverse transcriptase catalytic subunit (TERT) contributes to cell physiology independently of its ability to elongate telomeres. Here we show that TERT interacts with the RNA component of mitochondrial RNA processing endoribonuclease (RMRP), a gene that is mutated in the inherited pleiotropic syndrome cartilage-hair hypoplasia. Human TERT and RMRP form a distinct ribonucleoprotein complex that has RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRP) activity and produces double-stranded RNAs that can be processed into small interfering RNA in a Dicer (also known as DICER1)-dependent manner. These observations identify a mammalian RdRP composed of TERT in complex with RMRP.

An RNA-dependent RNA polymerase formed by TERT and the RMRP RNA.

Recent work has identified a subset of cells resident in tumors that exhibit properties similar to those found in normal stem cells. Such cells are highly tumorigenic and may be involved in resistance to treatment. However, the genes that regulate the tumor initiating cell (TIC) state are unknown. Here, we show that overexpression of either of the nucleolar GTP-binding proteins nucleostemin (NS) or GNL3L drives the fraction of genetically defined tumor cells that exhibit markers and tumorigenic properties of TICs. Specifically, cells that constitutively express elevated levels of NS or GNL3L exhibit increased TWIST expression, phosphorylation of STAT3, expression of genes that induce pluripotent stem cells, and enhanced radioresistance; in addition, they form tumors even when small numbers of cells are implanted and exhibit an increased propensity to metastasize. GNL3L/NS forms a complex with the telomerase catalytic subunit [human telomerase reverse transcriptase (hTERT)] and the SWItch-Sucrose NonFermentable (SWI-SNF) complex protein brahma-related gene 1 (BRG1), and the expression of each of these components is necessary to facilitate the cancer stem cell state. Together, these observations define a complex composed of TERT, BRG1, and NS/GNL3L that maintains the function of TICs.

Maintenance of tumor initiating cells of defined genetic composition by nucleostemin.

In the fission yeast Schizosaccharomyces pombe, centromeric heterochromatin is maintained by an RNA-directed RNA polymerase complex (RDRC) and the RNA-induced transcriptional silencing (RITS) complex in a manner that depends on the generation of short interfering RNA. In association with the telomerase RNA component (TERC), the telomerase reverse transcriptase (TERT) forms telomerase and counteracts telomere attrition, and without TERC, TERT has been implicated in the regulation of heterochromatin at locations distinct from telomeres. Here, we describe a complex composed of human TERT (hTERT), Brahma-related gene 1 (BRG1), and nucleostemin (NS) that contributes to heterochromatin maintenance at centromeres and transposons. This complex produced double-stranded RNAs homologous to centromeric alpha-satellite (alphoid) repeat elements and transposons that were processed into small interfering RNAs targeted to these heterochromatic regions. These small interfering RNAs promoted heterochromatin assembly and mitotic progression in a manner dependent on the RNA interference machinery. These observations implicate the hTERT/BRG1/NS (TBN) complex in heterochromatin assembly at particular sites in the mammalian genome. 

Involvement of telomerase reverse transcriptase in heterochromatin maintenance.

Treatment of advanced ovarian cancer involves platinum-based chemotherapy. However, chemoresistance is a major obstacle. Cancer stem cells (CSCs) are thought to be one of the causes of chemoresistance, but the underlying mechanism remains elusive. Recently, human telomerase reverse transcriptase (hTERT) has been reported to promote CSC-like traits. In this study, we found that a mitotic inhibitor, eribulin mesylate (eribulin), effectively inhibited growth of platinum-resistant ovarian cancer cell lines. Eribulin-sensitive cells showed a higher efficiency for sphere formation, suggesting that these cells possess an enhanced CSC-like phenotype. Moreover, these cells expressed a higher level of hTERT, and suppression of hTERT expression by siRNA resulted in decreased sensitivity to eribulin, suggesting that hTERT may be a target for eribulin. Indeed, we found that eribulin directly inhibited RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRP) activity, but not telomerase activity of hTERT in vitro. We propose that eribulin targets the RdRP activity of hTERT and may be an effective therapeutic option for CSCs. Furthermore, hTERT may be a useful biomarker to predict clinical responses to eribulin. 

Eribulin mesylate targets human telomerase reverse transcriptase in ovarian cancer cells.

MicroRNAs are small non-coding RNAs that inhibit the translation of target mRNAs. In humans, most microRNAs are transcribed by RNA polymerase II as long primary transcripts and processed by sequential cleavage of the two RNase III enzymes, DROSHA and DICER, into precursor and mature microRNAs, respectively. Although the fundamental functions of microRNAs in RNA silencing have been gradually uncovered, less is known about the regulatory mechanisms of microRNA expression. Here, we report that telomerase reverse transcriptase (TERT) extensively affects the expression levels of mature microRNAs. Deep sequencing-based screens of short RNA populations revealed that the suppression of TERT resulted in the downregulation of microRNAs expressed in THP-1 cells and HeLa cells. Primary and precursor microRNA levels were also reduced under the suppression of TERT. Similar results were obtained with the suppression of either BRG1 (also called SMARCA4) or nucleostemin, which are proteins interacting with TERT and functioning beyond telomeres. These results suggest that TERT regulates microRNAs at the very early phases in their biogenesis, presumably through non-telomerase mechanism(s). 

Telomerase reverse transcriptase regulates microRNAs.

RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRP) plays key roles in RNA silencing to generate double-stranded RNAs. In model organisms, such as Caenorhabditis elegans and Neurospora crassa, two types of small interfering RNAs (siRNAs), primary siRNAs and secondary siRNAs, are expressed; RdRP produces secondary siRNAs de novo, without using either Dicer or primers, while primary siRNAs are processed by Dicer. We reported that human telomerase reverse transcriptase (TERT) has RdRP activity and produces endogenous siRNAs in a Dicer-dependent manner. However, de novo synthesis of siRNAs by human TERT has not been elucidated. Here we show that the TERT RdRP generates short RNAs that are complementary to template RNAs and have 5'-triphosphorylated ends, which indicates de novo synthesis of the RNAs. In addition, we confirmed short RNA synthesis by TERT in several human carcinoma cell lines and found that TERT protein levels are positively correlated with RdRP activity.

De Novo RNA Synthesis by RNA-Dependent RNA Polymerase Activity of Telomerase Reverse Transcriptase.

Telomeres maintain the integrity of chromosome ends and telomere length is an important marker of aging. The epidemiological studies suggested that many types of stress including psychosocial stress decrease telomere length. However, it remains unknown how various stresses induce telomere shortening. Here, we report that the stress-responsive transcription factor ATF7 mediates TNF-α-induced telomere shortening. ATF7 and telomerase, an enzyme that elongates telomeres, are localized on telomeres via interactions with the Ku complex. In response to TNF-α, which is induced by various stresses including psychological stress, ATF7 was phosphorylated by p38, leading to the release of ATF7 and telomerase from telomeres. Thus, a decrease of ATF7 and telomerase on telomeres in response to stress causes telomere shortening, as observed in ATF7-deficient mice. These findings give credence to the idea that various types of stress might shorten telomere.

Article	Year
An RNA-dependent RNA polymerase formed by TERT and the RMRP RNA. Nature\| PubMed ID: 19701182	2009
Maintenance of tumor initiating cells of defined genetic composition by nucleostemin. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America\| PubMed ID: 21730156	2011
Involvement of telomerase reverse transcriptase in heterochromatin maintenance. Molecular and cellular biology\| PubMed ID: 24550003	2014
Eribulin mesylate targets human telomerase reverse transcriptase in ovarian cancer cells. PloS one\| PubMed ID: 25375122	2014
Telomerase reverse transcriptase regulates microRNAs. International journal of molecular sciences\| PubMed ID: 25569094	2015
De Novo RNA Synthesis by RNA-Dependent RNA Polymerase Activity of Telomerase Reverse Transcriptase. Molecular and cellular biology\| PubMed ID: 26830230	2016
ATF7 mediates TNF-α-induced telomere shortening. Nucleic acids research\| PubMed ID: 29490055	2018

Mami Yasukawa

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