quantification-plasmid-mediated-antibiotic-resistance-an-experimental

Quantification of Plasmid-Mediated Antibiotic Resistance in an Experimental Evolution Approach

Plasmids play a major role in microbial ecology and evolution as vehicles of lateral gene transfer and reservoirs of accessory gene functions in microbial ...

Kiel University

SMBE Satellite meeting on reticulated microbial evolution 2014--meeting report.

Many proteins depend on an interaction with molecular chaperones in order to fold into a functional tertiary structure. Previous studies showed that protein interaction with the GroEL/GroES chaperonine and Hsp90 chaperone can buffer the impact of slightly deleterious mutations in the protein sequence. This capacity of GroEL/GroES to prevent protein misfolding has been shown to accelerate the evolution of its client proteins. Whether other bacterial chaperones have a similar effect on their client proteins is currently unknown. Here, we study the impact of DnaK (Hsp70) chaperone on the evolution of its client proteins. Evolutionary parameters were derived from comparison of the Escherichia coli proteome to 1,808,565 orthologous proteins in 1,149 proteobacterial genomes. Our analysis reveals a significant positive correlation between protein binding frequency with DnaK and evolutionary rate. Proteins with high binding affinity to DnaK evolve on average 4.3-fold faster than proteins in the lowest binding affinity class at the genus resolution. Differences in evolutionary rates of DnaK interactor classes are still significant after adjusting for possible effects caused by protein expression level. Furthermore, we observe an additive effect of DnaK and GroEL chaperones on the evolutionary rates of their common interactors. Finally, we found pronounced similarities in the physicochemical profiles that characterize proteins belonging to DnaK and GroEL interactomes. Our results thus implicate DnaK-mediated folding as a major component in shaping protein evolutionary dynamics in bacteria and supply further evidence for the long-term manifestation of chaperone-mediated folding on genome evolution.

DnaK-Dependent Accelerated Evolutionary Rate in Prokaryotes.

The redox-sensitive proteome (RSP) consists of protein thiols that undergo redox reactions, playing an important role in coordinating cellular processes. Here, we applied a large-scale phylogenomic reconstruction approach in the model diatom Phaeodactylum tricornutum to map the evolutionary origins of the eukaryotic RSP. The majority of P. tricornutum redox-sensitive cysteines (76%) is specific to eukaryotes, yet these are encoded in genes that are mostly of a prokaryotic origin (57%). Furthermore, we find a threefold enrichment in redox-sensitive cysteines in genes that were gained by endosymbiotic gene transfer during the primary plastid acquisition. The secondary endosymbiosis event coincides with frequent introduction of reactive cysteines into existing proteins. While the plastid acquisition imposed an increase in the production of reactive oxygen species, our results suggest that it was accompanied by significant expansion of the RSP, providing redox regulatory networks the ability to cope with fluctuating environmental conditions.

Expansion of the redox-sensitive proteome coincides with the plastid endosymbiosis.

Plasmids are extra-chromosomal genetic elements whose ecology and evolution depend on their genetic repertoire and interaction with the host. We review the events that lead to transitions between plasmid lifestyle modes - invasion, host range, plasmid persistence and adaptation - from a plasmid perspective. Plasmid lifestyle is determined by various traits, including mobility, stability and indispensability that vary in their magnitude. Transitions between the plasmid lifestyles, invasion, host range, plasmid persistence and adpatation, are caused by the interplay between plasmid traits and host biology. Mobility and indispensability are important in plasmid ecology, whereas plasmid stability is more relevant for long-term plasmid evolution. In transitioning into additional chromosomes plasmids loose their independence and enter the host lineage. Though plasmids are confined to their hosts, their evolution may be independent of prokaryotic chromosomes.

An evolutionary perspective on plasmid lifestyle modes.

Filamentous cyanobacteria that differentiate multiple cell types are considered the peak of prokaryotic complexity and their evolution has been studied in the context of multicellularity origins. Species that form true-branching filaments exemplify the most complex cyanobacteria. However, the mechanisms underlying the true-branching morphology remain poorly understood despite of several investigations that focused on the identification of novel genes or pathways. An alternative route for the evolution of novel traits is based on existing phenotypic plasticity. According to that scenario - termed genetic assimilation - the fixation of a novel phenotype precedes the fixation of the genotype.

Plasticity first: molecular signatures of a complex morphological trait in filamentous cyanobacteria.

Ancestor-descendent relations play a cardinal role in evolutionary theory. Those relations are determined by rooting phylogenetic trees. Existing rooting methods are hampered by evolutionary rate heterogeneity or the unavailability of auxiliary phylogenetic information. Here we present a rooting approach, the minimal ancestor deviation (MAD) method, which accommodates heterotachy by using all pairwise topological and metric information in unrooted trees. We demonstrate the performance of the method, in comparison to existing rooting methods, by the analysis of phylogenies from eukaryotes and prokaryotes. MAD correctly recovers the known root of eukaryotes and uncovers evidence for the origin of cyanobacteria in the ocean. MAD is more robust and consistent than existing methods, provides measures of the root inference quality and is applicable to any tree with branch lengths.

Phylogenetic rooting using minimal ancestor deviation.

From protists to humans, all animals and plants are inhabited by microbial organisms. There is an increasing appreciation that these resident microbes influence the fitness of their plant and animal hosts, ultimately forming a metaorganism consisting of a uni- or multicellular host and a community of associated microorganisms. Research on host-microbe interactions has become an emerging cross-disciplinary field. In both vertebrates and invertebrates a complex microbiome confers immunological, metabolic and behavioural benefits; conversely, its disturbance can contribute to the development of disease states. However, the molecular and cellular mechanisms controlling the interactions within a metaorganism are poorly understood and many key interactions between the associated organisms remain unknown. In this perspective article, we outline some of the issues in interspecies interactions and in particular address the question of how metaorganisms react and adapt to inputs from extreme environments such as deserts, the intertidal zone, oligothrophic seas, and hydrothermal vents.

Metaorganisms in extreme environments: do microbes play a role in organismal adaptation?

The evolution of asexual organisms is driven not only by the inheritance of genetic modification but also by the acquisition of foreign DNA. The contribution of vertical and horizontal processes to genome evolution depends on their rates per year and is quantified by the ratio of recombination to mutation. These rates have been estimated for bacteria; however, no estimates have been reported for phages. Here, we delineate the contribution of mutation and recombination to dsDNA phage genome evolution. We analyzed 34 isolates of the 936 group of Siphoviridae phages using a Lactococcus lactis strain from a single dairy over 29 years. We estimate a constant substitution rate of 1.9 × 10-4 substitutions per site per year due to mutation that is within the range of estimates for eukaryotic RNA and DNA viruses. The reconstruction of recombination events reveals a constant rate of five recombination events per year and 4.5 × 10-3 nucleotide alterations due to recombination per site per year. Thus, the recombination rate exceeds the substitution rate, resulting in a relative effect of recombination to mutation (r/m) of ∼24 that is homogenous over time. Especially in the early transcriptional region, we detect frequent gene loss and regain due to recombination with phages of the 936 group, demonstrating the role of the 936 group pangenome as a reservoir of genetic variation. The observed substitution rate homogeneity conforms to the neutral theory of evolution; hence, the neutral theory can be applied to phage genome evolution and also to genetic variation brought about by recombination.

Rates of Mutation and Recombination in Siphoviridae Phage Genome Evolution over Three Decades.

DNA acquisition via genetic recombination is considered advantageous as it has the potential to bring together beneficial mutations that emerge independently within a population. Furthermore, recombination is considered to contribute to the maintenance of genome stability by purging slightly deleterious mutations. The prevalence of recombination differs among prokaryotic species and depends on the accessibility of DNA transfer mechanisms. An exceptional example is the human pathogen Mycobacterium tuberculosis (MTB) where no clear transfer mechanisms have been so far characterized and the presence of recombination is questioned. Here, we analyze completely assembled MTB genomes in search for evidence of recombination. We find that putative recombination events are enriched in strains reconstructed by reference-guided assembly and in regions with unreliable alignments. In addition, assembly and alignment artefacts introduce phylogenetic signals that are conflicting the established MTB phylogeny. Our results reveal that the so far reported recombination events in MTB are likely to stem from methodological artefacts. We conclude that no reliable signal of recombination is observed in the currently available MTB genomes. Moreover, our study demonstrates the limitations of reference-guided genome assembly for phylogenetic reconstructions. Rigorously de novo assembled genomes of high quality are mandatory in order to distinguish true evolutionary signal from noise, in particular for low diversity species such as MTB.

Recombination Signal in Mycobacterium tuberculosis Stems from Reference-guided Assemblies and Alignment Artefacts.

Benthic foraminifera are unicellular eukaryotes inhabiting sediments of aquatic environments. Several species were shown to store and use nitrate for complete denitrification, a unique energy metabolism among eukaryotes. The population of benthic foraminifera reaches high densities in oxygen-depleted marine habitats, where they play a key role in the marine nitrogen cycle. However, the mechanisms of denitrification in foraminifera are still unknown, and the possibility of a contribution of associated bacteria is debated. Here, we present evidence for a novel eukaryotic denitrification pathway that is encoded in foraminiferal genomes. Large-scale genome and transcriptomes analyses reveal the presence of a denitrification pathway in foraminifera species of the genus Globobulimina. This includes the enzymes nitrite reductase (NirK) and nitric oxide reductase (Nor) as well as a wide range of nitrate transporters (Nrt). A phylogenetic reconstruction of the enzymes' evolutionary history uncovers evidence for an ancient acquisition of the foraminiferal denitrification pathway from prokaryotes. We propose a model for denitrification in foraminifera, where a common electron transport chain is used for anaerobic and aerobic respiration. The evolution of hybrid respiration in foraminifera likely contributed to their ecological success, which is well documented in palaeontological records since the Cambrian period.

A Novel Eukaryotic Denitrification Pathway in Foraminifera.

The ubiquity of plasmids in all prokaryotic phyla and habitats and their ability to transfer between cells marks them as prominent constituents of prokaryotic genomes. Many plasmids are found in their host cell in multiple copies. This leads to an increased mutational supply of plasmid-encoded genes and genetically heterogeneous plasmid genomes. Nonetheless, the segregation of plasmid copies into daughter cells during cell division is considered to occur in the absence of selection on the plasmid alleles. We investigate the implications of random genetic drift of multicopy plasmids during cell division-termed here "segregational drift"-to plasmid evolution. Performing experimental evolution of low- and high-copy non-mobile plasmids in Escherichia coli, we find that the evolutionary rate of multicopy plasmids does not reflect the increased mutational supply expected according to their copy number. In addition, simulated evolution of multicopy plasmid alleles demonstrates that segregational drift leads to increased loss frequency and extended fixation time of plasmid mutations in comparison to haploid chromosomes. Furthermore, an examination of the experimentally evolved hosts reveals a significant impact of the plasmid type on the host chromosome evolution. Our study demonstrates that segregational drift of multicopy plasmids interferes with the retention and fixation of novel plasmid variants. Depending on the selection pressure on newly emerging variants, plasmid genomes may evolve slower than haploid chromosomes, regardless of their higher mutational supply. We suggest that plasmid copy number is an important determinant of plasmid evolvability due to the manifestation of segregational drift.

Segregational Drift and the Interplay between Plasmid Copy Number and Evolvability.

Benthic foraminifera populate a diverse range of marine habitats. Their ability to use alternative electron acceptors-nitrate (NO) or oxygen (O)-makes them important mediators of benthic nitrogen cycling. Nevertheless, the metabolic scaling of the two alternative respiration pathways and the environmental determinants of foraminiferal denitrification rates are yet unknown. We measured denitrification and O respiration rates for 10 benthic foraminifer species sampled in the Peruvian oxygen minimum zone (OMZ). Denitrification and O respiration rates significantly scale sublinearly with the cell volume. The scaling is lower for O respiration than for denitrification, indicating that NO metabolism during denitrification is more efficient than O metabolism during aerobic respiration in foraminifera from the Peruvian OMZ. The negative correlation of the O respiration rate with the surface/volume ratio is steeper than for the denitrification rate. This is likely explained by the presence of an intracellular NO storage in denitrifying foraminifera. Furthermore, we observe an increasing mean cell volume of the Peruvian foraminifera, under higher NO availability. This suggests that the cell size of denitrifying foraminifera is not limited by O but rather by NO availability. Based on our findings, we develop a mathematical formulation of foraminiferal cell volume as a predictor of respiration and denitrification rates, which can further constrain foraminiferal biogeochemical cycling in biogeochemical models. Our findings show that NO is the preferred electron acceptor in foraminifera from the OMZ, where the foraminiferal contribution to denitrification is governed by the ratio between NO and O.

Metabolic preference of nitrate over oxygen as an electron acceptor in foraminifera from the Peruvian oxygen minimum zone.

In experimental evolution, scientists evolve organisms in the lab, typically by challenging them to new environmental conditions. How best to evolve a desired trait? Should the challenge be applied abruptly, gradually, periodically, sporadically? Should one apply chemical mutagenesis, and do strains with high innate mutation rate evolve faster? What are ideal population sizes of evolving populations? There are endless strategies, beyond those that can be exposed by individual labs. We therefore arranged a community challenge, Evolthon, in which students and scientists from different labs were asked to evolve Escherichia coli or Saccharomyces cerevisiae for an abiotic stress-low temperature. About 30 participants from around the world explored diverse environmental and genetic regimes of evolution. After a period of evolution in each lab, all strains of each species were competed with one another. In yeast, the most successful strategies were those that used mating, underscoring the importance of sex in evolution. In bacteria, the fittest strain used a strategy based on exploration of different mutation rates. Different strategies displayed variable levels of performance and stability across additional challenges and conditions. This study therefore uncovers principles of effective experimental evolutionary regimens and might prove useful also for biotechnological developments of new strains and for understanding natural strategies in evolutionary arms races between species. Evolthon constitutes a model for community-based scientific exploration that encourages creativity and cooperation.

Evolthon: A community endeavor to evolve lab evolution.

Plasmid acquisition is an important mechanism of rapid adaptation and niche expansion in prokaryotes. Positive selection for plasmid-coded functions is a major driver of plasmid evolution, while plasmids that do not confer a selective advantage are considered costly and expected to go extinct. Yet, plasmids are ubiquitous in nature, and their persistence remains an evolutionary paradox. Here, we demonstrate that non-mobile plasmids persist over evolutionary timescales without selection for the plasmid function. Evolving a minimal plasmid encoding for antibiotics resistance in Escherichia coli, we discover that plasmid stability emerges in the absence of antibiotics and that plasmid loss is determined by transcription-replication conflicts. We further find that environmental conditions modulate these conflicts and plasmid persistence. Silencing the transcription of the resistance gene results in stable plasmids that become fixed in the population. Evolution of plasmid stability under non-selective conditions provides an evolutionary explanation for the ubiquity of plasmids in nature.

Emergence of plasmid stability under non-selective conditions maintains antibiotic resistance.

Symbiotic interactions between eukaryotes and prokaryotes are widespread in nature. Here we offer a conceptual framework to study the evolutionary origins and ecological circumstances of species in beneficial symbiosis. We posit that mutual symbiotic interactions are well described by three elements: a currency, the mechanism of currency exchange, and mechanisms of symbiont inheritance. Each of these elements may be at the origin of symbiosis, with the other elements developing with time. The identity of currency in symbiosis depends on the ecological context of the symbiosis, while the specificity of the exchange mechanism underlies molecular adaptations for the symbiosis. The inheritance regime determines the degree of partner dependency and the symbiosis evolutionary trajectory. Focusing on these three elements, we review examples and open questions in the research on symbiosis.

Currency, Exchange, and Inheritance in the Evolution of Symbiosis.

The interplay between hosts and their associated microbiome is now recognized as a fundamental basis of the ecology, evolution, and development of both players. These interdependencies inspired a new view of multicellular organisms as "metaorganisms." The goal of the Collaborative Research Center "Origin and Function of Metaorganisms" is to understand why and how microbial communities form long-term associations with hosts from diverse taxonomic groups, ranging from sponges to humans in addition to plants.

Comparative analysis of amplicon and metagenomic sequencing methods reveals key features in the evolution of animal metaorganisms.

Population bottlenecks leading to a drastic reduction of the population size are common in the evolutionary dynamics of natural populations; their occurrence is known to have implications for genome evolution due to genetic drift, the consequent reduction in genetic diversity, and the rate of adaptation. Nevertheless, an empirical characterization of the effect of population bottleneck size on evolutionary dynamics of bacteria is currently lacking. In this study, we show that selective conditions have a stronger effect on the evolutionary history of bacteria in comparison to population bottlenecks. We evolved Escherichia coli populations under three different population bottleneck sizes (small, medium, and large) in two temperature regimes (37 °C and 20 °C). We find a high genetic diversity in the large in comparison to the small bottleneck size. Nonetheless, the cold temperature led to reduced genetic diversity regardless the bottleneck size; hence, the temperature has a stronger effect on the genetic diversity in comparison to the bottleneck size. A comparison of the fitness gain among the evolved populations reveals a similar pattern where the temperature has a significant effect on the fitness. Our study demonstrates that population bottlenecks are an important determinant of bacterial evolvability; their consequences depend on the selective conditions and are best understood via their effect on the standing genetic variation.

Article	Year
SMBE Satellite meeting on reticulated microbial evolution 2014--meeting report. Genome biology and evolution\| PubMed ID: 25115940	2014
DnaK-Dependent Accelerated Evolutionary Rate in Prokaryotes. Genome biology and evolution\| PubMed ID: 27189986	2016
Expansion of the redox-sensitive proteome coincides with the plastid endosymbiosis. Nature plants\| PubMed ID: 28504699	2017
An evolutionary perspective on plasmid lifestyle modes. Current opinion in microbiology\| PubMed ID: 28538166	2017
Plasticity first: molecular signatures of a complex morphological trait in filamentous cyanobacteria. BMC evolutionary biology\| PubMed ID: 28859625	2017
Phylogenetic rooting using minimal ancestor deviation. Nature ecology & evolution\| PubMed ID: 29388565	2017
Metaorganisms in extreme environments: do microbes play a role in organismal adaptation? Zoology (Jena, Germany)\| PubMed ID: 29599012	2018
Rates of Mutation and Recombination in Siphoviridae Phage Genome Evolution over Three Decades. Molecular biology and evolution\| PubMed ID: 29688542	2018
Recombination Signal in Mycobacterium tuberculosis Stems from Reference-guided Assemblies and Alignment Artefacts. Genome biology and evolution\| PubMed ID: 30010866	2018
A Novel Eukaryotic Denitrification Pathway in Foraminifera. Current biology : CB\| PubMed ID: 30078568	2018
Segregational Drift and the Interplay between Plasmid Copy Number and Evolvability. Molecular biology and evolution\| PubMed ID: 30517696	2019
Metabolic preference of nitrate over oxygen as an electron acceptor in foraminifera from the Peruvian oxygen minimum zone. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America\| PubMed ID: 30728294	2019
Evolthon: A community endeavor to evolve lab evolution. PLoS biology\| PubMed ID: 30925180	2019
Emergence of plasmid stability under non-selective conditions maintains antibiotic resistance. Nature communications\| PubMed ID: 31197163	2019
Currency, Exchange, and Inheritance in the Evolution of Symbiosis. Trends in microbiology\| PubMed ID: 31257129	2019
Comparative analysis of amplicon and metagenomic sequencing methods reveals key features in the evolution of animal metaorganisms. Microbiome\| PubMed ID: 31521200	2019
The Effect of Population Bottleneck Size and Selective Regime on Genetic Diversity and Evolvability in Bacteria. Genome biology and evolution\| PubMed ID: 31688900	2019

Tal Dagan

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