generation-human-neurons-oligodendrocytes-from-pluripotent-stem-cells

Generation of Human Neurons and Oligodendrocytes from Pluripotent Stem Cells for Modeling Neuron-Oligodendrocyte Interactions

In Alzheimer&#8217;s disease (AD) and other neurodegenerative disorders, oligodendroglial failure is a common early pathological feature, but how it ...

Brown University

The human JC polyomavirus (JCPyV) causes the rapidly progressing demyelinating disease progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy (PML). The disease occurs most often in individuals with AIDS but also occurs in individuals receiving immunomodulatory therapies for immune-related diseases such as multiple sclerosis. JCPyV infection of host cells requires the pentasaccharide lactoseries tetrasaccharide c (LSTc) and the serotonin receptor 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT) receptor 5-HT2AR. While LSTc is involved in the initial attachment of virus to cells via interactions with VP1, the mechanism by which 5-HT2AR contributes to infection is not clear. To further define the roles of serotonin receptors in infection, HEK293A cells, which are poorly permissive to JCPyV, were transfected with 14 different isoforms of serotonin receptor. Only 5-HT2 receptors were found to support infection by JCPyV. None of the other 11 isoforms of serotonin receptor supported JCPyV infection. Expression of 5-HT2 receptors did not increase binding of JCPyV to cells, but this was not unexpected, given that the cells uniformly expressed the major attachment receptor, LSTc. Infection of these cells remained sensitive to inhibition with soluble LSTc, confirming that LSTc recognition is required for JCPyV infection. Virus internalization into HEK293A cells was significantly and specifically enhanced when 5HT2 receptors were expressed. Taken together, these data confirm that the carbohydrate LSTc is the attachment receptor for JCPyV and that the type 2 serotonin receptors contribute to JCPyV infection by facilitating entry. 

5-HT2 receptors facilitate JC polyomavirus entry.

The JC and BK human polyomaviruses (JCPyV and BKPyV, respectively) establish lifelong persistent infections in the kidney. In immunosuppressed individuals, JCPyV causes progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy (PML), a fatal neurodegenerative disease, and BKPyV causes polyomavirus-associated nephropathy (PVN). In this study, we compared JCPyV and BKPyV infections in primary human renal proximal tubule epithelial (HRPTE) cells. JCPyV established a persistent infection, but BKPyV killed the cells in 15 days. To identify the cellular factors responsible for controlling JCPyV infection and promoting viral persistence, we profiled the transcriptomes of JCPyV- and BKPyV-infected cells at several time points postinfection. We found that infection with both viruses induced interferon production but that interferon-stimulated genes (ISGs) were only activated in the JCPyV-infected cells. Phosphorylated STAT1 and IRF9, which are responsible for inducing ISGs, translocated to the nucleus of JCPyV-infected cells but did not in BKPyV-infected cells. In BKPyV-infected cells, two critical suppressors of cytokine signaling, SOCS3 and SOCS1, were induced. Infection with BKPyV but not JCPyV caused reorganization of PML bodies that are associated with inactivating antiviral responses. Blockade of the interferon receptor and neutralization of soluble interferon alpha (IFN-α) and IFN-β partially alleviated the block to JCPyV infection, leading to enhanced infectivity. Our results show that a type I IFN response contributes to the establishment of persistent infection by JCPyV in HRPTE cells.

JC Polyomavirus Infection of Primary Human Renal Epithelial Cells Is Controlled by a Type I IFN-Induced Response.

The endemic human JC polyomavirus (JCPyV) causes progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy in immune-suppressed patients. The mechanisms of virus infection  are not understood because the major target cells for virus in the brain do not express virus receptors and do not bind virus. We found that JCPyV associates with extracellular vesicles (EVs) and can infect target cells independently of virus receptors. Virus particles were found packaged inside extracellular vesicles and attached to the outer side of vesicles. Anti-JCPyV antisera reduced infection by purified virus but had no effect on infection by EV-associated virus. Treatment of cells with the receptor-destroying enzyme neuraminidase inhibited infection with purified virus but did not inhibit infection by EV-associated virus. Mutant pseudoviruses defective in sialic acid receptor binding could not transduce cells as purified pseudovirions but could do so when associated with EVs. This alternative mechanism of infection likely plays a critical role in the dissemination and spread of JCPyV both to and within the central nervous system. JC polyomavirus (JCPyV) is a ubiquitous human pathogen that causes progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy (PML), a severe and often fatal neurodegenerative disease in immunocompromised or immunomodulated patients. The mechanisms responsible for initiating infection in susceptible cells are not completely known. The major attachment receptor for the virus, lactoseries tetrasaccharide c (LSTc), is paradoxically not expressed on oligodendrocytes or astrocytes in human brain, and virus does not bind to these cells. Because these are the major cell types targeted by the virus in the brain, we hypothesized that alternative mechanisms of infection must be responsible. Here we provide evidence that JCPyV is packaged in extracellular vesicles from infected cells. Infection of target cells by vesicle-associated virus is not dependent on LSTc and is not neutralized by antisera directed against the virus. This is the first demonstration of a polyomavirus using extracellular vesicles as a means of transmission.

JC Polyomavirus Uses Extracellular Vesicles To Infect Target Cells.

JC polyomavirus (JCPyV) is a ubiquitous human pathogen that causes progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy (PML). The entry receptors for JCPyV belong to the 5-hydroxytryptamine 2 receptor (5-HTR) family, but how individual members of the family function to facilitate infection is not known. We used proximity ligation assay (PLA) to determine that JCPyV interacts with each of the 5-HT receptors (5-HTRs) in a narrow window of time during entry. We used CRISPR-Cas9 to randomly introduce stop codons in the gene for each receptor and discovered that the second intracellular loop of each was necessary for infection. This loop contains a motif possibly involved in receptor internalization by β-arrestin. Mutation of this motif and small interfering RNA (siRNA) knockdown of β-arrestin recapitulated the results of our CRISPR-Cas9 screen, showing that this motif is critical. Our results have implications for the role these receptors play in virus infection and for their normal functioning as receptors for serotonin.

Genetic and Functional Dissection of the Role of Individual 5-HT Receptors as Entry Receptors for JC Polyomavirus.

Correction for Assetta et al., "JC Polyomavirus Infection of Primary Human Renal Epithelial Cells Is Controlled by a Type I IFN-Induced Response".

Polyomaviruses are small, non-enveloped DNA tumor viruses that cause serious disease in immunosuppressed people, including progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy (PML) in patients infected with JC polyomavirus, but the molecular events mediating polyomavirus entry are poorly understood. Through genetic knockdown approaches, we identified phosphoinositide 3'-kinase γ (PI3Kγ) and its regulatory subunit PIK3R5 as cellular proteins that facilitate infection of human SVG-A glial cells by JCPyV. PI3Kα appears less important for polyomavirus infection than PI3Kγ. CRISPR/Cas9-mediated knockout of PIK3R5 or PI3Kγ inhibited infection by authentic JCPyV and by JC pseudovirus. PI3Kγ knockout also inhibited infection by BK and Merkel Cell pseudoviruses, other pathogenic human polyomaviruses, and SV40, an important model polyomavirus. Reintroduction of the wild-type  gene into the PI3Kγ knock-out SVG-A cells rescued the JCPyV infection defect. Disruption of the PI3Kγ pathway did not block binding of JCPyV to cells or virus internalization, implying that PI3Kγ facilitates some intracellular step(s) of infection. These results imply that agents that inhibit PI3Kγ signaling may have a role in managing polyomavirus infections.

Phosphoinositide 3'-Kinase γ Facilitates Polyomavirus Infection.

BK polyomavirus (BKPyV) is a ubiquitous human pathogen, with over 80% of adults worldwide persistently infected. BKPyV infection is usually asymptomatic in healthy people; however, it causes polyomavirus-associated nephropathy in renal transplant patients and hemorrhagic cystitis in bone marrow transplant patients. BKPyV has a circular, double-stranded DNA genome that is divided genetically into three parts: an early region, a late region, and a non-coding control region (NCCR). The NCCR contains the viral DNA replication origin and cis-acting elements regulating viral early and late gene expression. It was previously shown that a BKPyV miRNA expressed from the late strand regulates viral large T antigen expression and limits the replication capacity of archetype BKPyV. A major unanswered question in the field is how expression of the viral miRNA is regulated. Typically, miRNA is expressed from introns in cellular genes but there is no intron readily apparent in the BKPyV from which the miRNA could derive. Here we provide evidence for primary RNA transcripts that circle the genome more than once and include the NCCR. We identified splice junctions resulting from splicing of primary transcripts circling the genome more than once, and Sanger sequencing of RT-PCR products indicates that there are viral transcripts that circle the genome up to four times. Our data suggest that the miRNA is expressed from the intron of these greater-than-genome size primary transcripts. The BK polyomavirus (BKPyV) miRNA plays an important role in regulating viral large T antigen expression and limiting the replication of archetype BKPyV, suggesting that the miRNA regulates BKPyV persistence. However, how miRNA expression is regulated is poorly understood. Here, we present evidence that the miRNA is expressed from an intron that is generated by RNA polymerase II transcribing the circular viral genome more than once. We identified splice junctions that could only be generated from primary transcripts that contain tandemly repeated copies of the viral genome. The results indicate another way in which viruses optimize expression of their genes using limited coding capacity.

Article	Year
5-HT2 receptors facilitate JC polyomavirus entry. Journal of virology\| PubMed ID: 24089568	2013
JC Polyomavirus Infection of Primary Human Renal Epithelial Cells Is Controlled by a Type I IFN-Induced Response. mBio\| PubMed ID: 27381292	2016
JC Polyomavirus Uses Extracellular Vesicles To Infect Target Cells. mBio\| PubMed ID: 30967463	2019
Genetic and Functional Dissection of the Role of Individual 5-HT Receptors as Entry Receptors for JC Polyomavirus. Cell reports\| PubMed ID: 31091436	2019
Correction for Assetta et al., "JC Polyomavirus Infection of Primary Human Renal Epithelial Cells Is Controlled by a Type I IFN-Induced Response". mBio\| PubMed ID: 31615962	2019
Phosphoinositide 3'-Kinase γ Facilitates Polyomavirus Infection. Viruses\| PubMed ID: 33092168	2020
Control of archetype BK polyomavirus miRNA expression. Journal of virology\| PubMed ID: 33115878	2020

Benedetta Assetta

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