tetrameric-fluorescent-antigen-arrays-for-single-step-identification

Tetrameric Fluorescent Antigen Arrays for Single-Step Identification of Antigen-Specific B Cells

Fluorescent antigen production is a critical step in the identification of antigen-specific B cells. Here, we detailed the preparation, purification, and ...

University of Kansas

Current therapies for autoimmune diseases focus on treating the symptoms rather than the underlying disease cause. A major setback in improving current therapeutics for autoimmunity is the lack of antigen specificity. Successful antigen-specific immunotherapy (ASIT) would allow for improved treatment of autoimmune diseases. In this work, dexamethasone was co-delivered with autoantigen (PLP) in vivo to create effective ASIT for the treatment of experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE). Using an emulsion of incomplete Freund's adjuvant (IFA) as a co-delivery vehicle, it was discovered that the controlled release of autoantigen was important for the suppression of clinical disease symptoms. Analysis of the immune response via cytokines revealed that dexamethasone was important for shifting the immune response away from inflammation. Co-delivery of both autoantigen and dexamethasone increased B-cell populations and antibody production, signifying an increased humoral immune response. Overall, this data indicated that the co-delivery of PLP and dexamethasone with a water-in-oil emulsion is effective in treating a murine autoimmune model.

Co-delivery of autoantigen and dexamethasone in incomplete Freund's adjuvant ameliorates experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis.

Autoreactive lymphocytes that escape central immune tolerance may be silenced via an endogenous peripheral tolerance mechanism known as anergy. Antigen-specific therapies capable of inducing anergy may restore patients with autoimmune diseases to a healthy phenotype while avoiding deleterious side effects associated with global immunosuppression. Inducing anergy in B cells may be a particularly potent intervention, as B cells can contribute to autoimmune diseases through multiple mechanisms and offer the potential for direct antigen-specific targeting through the B cell receptor (BCR). Our previous results suggested autoreactive B cells may be silenced by multivalent 'soluble antigen arrays' (SAgAs), which are polymer conjugates displaying multiple copies of autoantigen with or without a secondary peptide that blocks intracellular cell-adhesion molecule-1 (ICAM-1). Here, key therapeutic molecular properties of SAgAs were identified and linked to the immunological mechanism through comprehensive cellular and in vivo analyses. We determined non-hydrolyzable 'cSAgAs' displaying multivalent 'click'-conjugated antigen more potently suppressed experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) compared to hydrolyzable SAgAs capable of releasing conjugated antigen. cSAgAs restored a healthy phenotype in disease-specific antigen presenting cells (APCs) by inducing an anergic response in B cells and a subset of B cells called autoimmune-associated B cells (ABCs) that act as potent APCs in autoimmune disease. Accompanied by a cytokine response skewed towards a Th2/regulatory phenotype, this generated an environment of autoantigenic tolerance. By identifying key therapeutic molecular properties and an immunological mechanism that drives SAgA efficacy, this work guides the design of antigen-specific immunotherapies capable of inducing anergy.

Soluble antigen arrays disarm antigen-specific B cells to promote lasting immune tolerance in experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis.

Contemporary approaches to treating autoimmune diseases like multiple sclerosis broadly modulate the immune system and leave patients susceptible to severe adverse effects. Antigen-specific immunotherapies (ASIT) offer a unique opportunity to selectively suppress autoreactive cell populations but have suffered from marginal efficacy even when employing traditional adjuvants to improve delivery. The development of immunologically active antigen delivery vehicles could potentially increase the clinical success of antigen-specific immunotherapies. An emulsion of the antioxidant tocopherol delivering an epitope of proteolipid protein autoantigen (PLP) yielded significant efficacy in mice with experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE). In vitro studies indicated tocopherol emulsions reduced oxidative stress in antigen-presenting cells. Ex vivo analysis revealed that tocopherol emulsions shifted cytokine responses in EAE splenocytes. In addition, IgG responses against PLP were increased in mice treated with tocopherol emulsions delivering the antigen, suggesting a possible skew in immunity. Overall, tocopherol emulsions provide a functional delivery vehicle for ASIT capable of ameliorating autoimmunity in a murine model.

Tocopherol Emulsions as Functional Autoantigen Delivery Vehicles Evoke Therapeutic Efficacy in Experimental Autoimmune Encephalomyelitis.

Antigen valency plays a fundamental role in directing the nature of an immune response to be stimulatory or tolerogenic. Soluble antigen arrays (SAgAs) are an antigen-specific immunotherapy that combats autoimmunity through the multivalent display of autoantigen. Although mechanistic studies have shown SAgAs to induce T- and B-cell anergy, the effect of SAgA valency has never been experimentally tested. Here, SAgAs of discrete antigen valencies were synthesized by click chemistry and evaluated for acute B-cell signaling inhibition as well as downstream immunomodulatory effects in splenocytes. Initial studies using the Raji B-cell line demonstrated SAgA valency dictated the extent of calcium flux. Lower valency constructs elicited the largest reductions in B-cell activation. In splenocytes from mice with experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis, the same valency-dependent effects were evident in the downregulation of the costimulatory marker CD86. The reduction of calcium flux observed in Raji B-cells correlated strongly with downregulation in splenocyte CD86 expression after 72 h. Here, a thorough analysis of SAgA antigenic valency illustrates that low, but not monovalent, presentation of autoantigen was ideal for eliciting the most potent immunomodulatory effects.

Acute B-Cell Inhibition by Soluble Antigen Arrays Is Valency-Dependent and Predicts Immunomodulation in Splenocytes.

Relapsing-remitting patterns of many autoimmune diseases such as multiple sclerosis (MS) are perpetuated by a recurring circuit of adaptive immune cells that amplify in secondary lymphoid organs (SLOs) and traffic to compartments where antigen is abundant to elicit damage. Some of the most effective immunotherapies impede the migration of immune cells through this circuit, however, broadly suppressing immune cell migration can introduce life-threatening risks for patients. We developed antigen-specific immune decoys (ASIDs) to mimic tissues targeted in autoimmunity and selectively intercept autoimmune cells to preserve host tissue. Using Experimental Autoimmune Encephalomyelitis (EAE) as a model, we conjugated autoantigen PLP to a microporous collagen scaffold. By subcutaneously implanting ASIDs after induction but prior to the onset of symptoms, mice were protected from paralysis. ASID implants were rich with autoimmune cells, however, reactivity to cognate antigen was substantially diminished and apoptosis was prevalent. ASID-implanted mice consistently exhibited engorged spleens when disease normally peaked. In addition, splenocyte antigen-presenting cells were highly activated in response to PLP rechallenge, but CD3 and CD19  effector subsets were significantly decreased, suggesting exhaustion. ASID-implanted mice never developed EAE relapse symptoms even though the ASID material had long since degraded, suggesting exhausted autoimmune cells did not recover functionality. Together, data suggested ASIDs were able to sequester and exhaust immune cells in an antigen-specific fashion, thus offering a compelling approach to inhibit the migration circuit underlying autoimmunity.

Antigen-specific immune decoys intercept and exhaust autoimmunity to prevent disease.

Antigen-specific immunotherapies (ASIT) present compelling potential for introducing precision to the treatment of autoimmune diseases where nonspecific, global immunosuppression is currently the only treatment option. Central to ASIT design is the delivery of autoantigen, which parallels allergy desensitization approaches. Clinical success in tolerizing allergen-specific responses spans longer than a century, but autoimmune ASITs have yet to see an FDA-approved breakthrough. Allergens and autoantigens differ substantially in physicochemical properties, and these discrepancies influence the nature of their interactions with the immune system. Approved allergen-specific immunotherapies are typically administered as water soluble, neutrally charged protein fractions from 10 to 70 kDa. Conversely, autoantigens are native proteins that exhibit wide-ranging sizes, solubilities, and charges that render them susceptible to immunogenicity. To translate the success of allergen hyposensitization to ASIT, delivery strategies may be necessary to effectively format autoantigens, guide biodistribution, and engage appropriate immune mechanisms.

Linking autoantigen properties to mechanisms of immunity.

Cancer therapies aim to kill tumor cells directly or engage the immune system to fight malignancy. Checkpoint inhibitors, oncolytic viruses, cell-based immunotherapies, cytokines, and adjuvants have been applied to prompt the immune system to recognize and attack cancer cells. However, systemic exposure of cancer therapies can induce unwanted adverse events. Intratumoral administration of potent therapies utilizes small amounts of drugs, in an effort to minimize systemic exposure and off-target toxicities. Here, we discuss the properties of the tumor microenvironment and transport considerations for intratumoral drug delivery. Specifically, we consider various tumor tissue factors and physicochemical factors that can affect tumor retention after intratumoral injection. We also review approved and clinical-stage intratumoral therapies and consider how the molecular and biophysical properties (e.g. size and charge) of these therapies influences intratumoral transport (e.g. tumor retention and cellular uptake). Finally, we offer a critical review and highlight several emerging approaches to promote tumor retention and limit systemic exposure of potent intratumoral therapies.

Human intratumoral therapy: Linking drug properties and tumor transport of drugs in clinical trials.

Many autoimmune therapies focus on immune suppression to reduce symptom severity and halt disease progression; however, currently approved treatments lack specificity for the autoantigen and rely on more global immune suppression. Multivalent antigen arrays can disarm pathogenic autoimmune B cell populations that specifically recognize the antigen of interest via their B cell receptor (BCR). Disarmament may be achieved by BCR engagement, cross-linking, and sustained receptor occupancy as a result of multivalent, high avidity BCR binding. To engage and explore this mechanism, a tetramer display of the encephalogenic proteolipid peptide (PLP), referred to as 4-arm PLP, was synthesized by copper-catalyzed azide-alkyne cycloaddition chemistry. Subcutaneous administration of 4-arm PLP completely ameliorated symptoms of paralysis in a mouse model of multiple sclerosis known as experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis. Competitive binding of 4-arm PLP to PLP-specific IgG in the mouse serum demonstrated the enhanced avidity associated with the multivalent array compared to the free peptide. Furthermore, key PLP-reactive B cells were depleted following 4-arm PLP treatment, resulting in significant reduction of proinflammatory cytokines. Together, these data demonstrate the potential of 4-arm PLP to silence autoreactive B cell populations and limit the downstream activation of effector cells.

Article	Year
Co-delivery of autoantigen and dexamethasone in incomplete Freund's adjuvant ameliorates experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis. Journal of controlled release : official journal of the Controlled Release Society\| PubMed ID: 28963036	2017
Soluble antigen arrays disarm antigen-specific B cells to promote lasting immune tolerance in experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis. Journal of autoimmunity\| PubMed ID: 30007842	2018
Tocopherol Emulsions as Functional Autoantigen Delivery Vehicles Evoke Therapeutic Efficacy in Experimental Autoimmune Encephalomyelitis. Molecular pharmaceutics\| PubMed ID: 30615457	2019
Acute B-Cell Inhibition by Soluble Antigen Arrays Is Valency-Dependent and Predicts Immunomodulation in Splenocytes. Biomacromolecules\| PubMed ID: 30995843	2019
Antigen-specific immune decoys intercept and exhaust autoimmunity to prevent disease. Biomaterials\| PubMed ID: 31450159	2019
Linking autoantigen properties to mechanisms of immunity. Advanced drug delivery reviews\| PubMed ID: 32325104	2020
Human intratumoral therapy: Linking drug properties and tumor transport of drugs in clinical trials. Journal of controlled release : official journal of the Controlled Release Society\| PubMed ID: 32673633	2020
Autoantigen Tetramer Silences Autoreactive B Cell Populations. Molecular pharmaceutics\| PubMed ID: 32903002	2020

J. Daniel Griffin

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