use-trowell-type-organ-culture-to-study-regulation-dental-stem

Use of Trowell-Type Organ Culture to Study Regulation of Dental Stem Cells

Organ development, function, and regeneration depend on stem cells, which reside within discrete anatomical spaces called stem cell niches. The ...

University of Helsinki

Continuous growth of rodent incisors relies on epithelial stem cells (SCs) located in the SC niche called labial cervical loop (LaCL). Here, we found a population of apoptotic cells residing in a specific location of the LaCL in mouse incisor. Activated Caspase 3 and Caspase 9, expressed in this location colocalized in part with Lgr5 in putative SCs. The addition of Caspase inhibitors to incisors ex vivo resulted in concentration dependent thickening of LaCL. To examine the role of Wnt signaling in regulation of apoptosis, we exposed the LaCL of postnatal day 2 (P2) mouse incisor ex vivo to BIO, a known activator of Wnt/β-catenin signaling. This resulted in marked thinning of LaCL as well as enhanced apoptosis. We found that Wnt/β-catenin signaling was intensely induced by BIO in the mesenchyme surrounding the LaCL, but, unexpectedly, no β-catenin activity was detected in the LaCL epithelium either before or after BIO treatment. We discovered that the expression of Fgf10, an essential growth factor for incisor epithelial SCs, was dramatically downregulated in the mesenchyme around BIO-treated LaCL, and that exogenous Fgf10 could rescue the thinning of the LaCL caused by BIO. We conclude that the homeostasis of the epithelial SC population in the mouse incisor depends on a proper rate of apoptosis and that this apoptosis is controlled by signals from the mesenchyme surrounding the LaCL. Fgf10 is a key mesenchymal signal limiting apoptosis of incisor epithelial SCs and its expression is negatively regulated by Wnt/β-catenin. Stem Cells 2015;33:1670-1681. 

Mesenchymal Wnt/β-Catenin Signaling Controls Epithelial Stem Cell Homeostasis in Teeth by Inhibiting the Antiapoptotic Effect of Fgf10.

Epithelial morphogenesis generates the shape of the tooth crown. This is driven by patterned differentiation of cells into enamel knots, root-forming cervical loops and enamel-forming ameloblasts. Enamel knots are signaling centers that define the positions of cusp tips in a tooth by instructing the adjacent epithelium to fold and proliferate. Here, we show that the forkhead-box transcription factor Foxi3 inhibits formation of enamel knots and cervical loops and thus the differentiation of dental epithelium in mice. Conditional deletion of Foxi3 (Foxi3 cKO) led to fusion of molars with abnormally patterned shallow cusps. Foxi3 was expressed in the epithelium, and its expression was reduced in the enamel knots and cervical loops and in ameloblasts. Bmp4, a known inducer of enamel knots and dental epithelial differentiation, downregulated Foxi3 in wild-type teeth. Using genome-wide gene expression profiling, we showed that in Foxi3 cKO there was an early upregulation of differentiation markers, such as p21, Fgf15 and Sfrp5. Different signaling pathway components that are normally restricted to the enamel knots were expanded in the epithelium, and Sostdc1, a marker of the intercuspal epithelium, was missing. These findings indicated that the activator-inhibitor balance regulating cusp patterning was disrupted in Foxi3 cKO. In addition, early molar bud morphogenesis and, in particular, formation of the suprabasal epithelial cell layer were impaired. We identified keratin 10 as a marker of suprabasal epithelial cells in teeth. Our results suggest that Foxi3 maintains dental epithelial cells in an undifferentiated state and thereby regulates multiple stages of tooth morphogenesis. 

Suppression of epithelial differentiation by Foxi3 is essential for molar crown patterning.

Reciprocal interactions between epithelial and mesenchymal tissues play a fundamental role in the morphogenesis of teeth and regulate all aspects of tooth development. Extensive studies on mouse tooth development over the past 25 years have uncovered the molecular details of the signaling networks mediating these interactions (reviewed by Jussila & Thesleff, 2012; Lan, Jia, & Jiang, 2014). Five conserved signaling pathways, namely, the Wnt, BMP, FGF, Shh, and Eda, are involved in the mediation of the successive reciprocal epithelial-mesenchymal cross talk which follows the general principle of morphogenetic interactions (Davidson, 1993). The pathways regulate the expression of transcription factors which confer the identity of dental epithelium and mesenchyme. The signals and transcription factors are integrated in complex signaling networks whose fine-tuning allows the generation of the variation in tooth morphologies. In this review, we describe the principles and molecular mechanisms of the epithelial-mesenchymal interactions regulating successive stages of tooth formation: (i) the initiation of tooth development, with special reference to the shift of tooth-forming potential from epithelium to mesenchyme; (ii) the morphogenesis of the tooth crown, focusing on the roles of epithelial signaling centers; (iii) the differentiation of odontoblasts and ameloblasts, which produce dentin and enamel, respectively; and (iv) the maintenance of dental stem cells, which support the continuous growth of teeth. 

Tissue Interactions Regulating Tooth Development and Renewal.

Tooth agenesis is one of the predominant developmental anomalies in humans, usually affecting the permanent dentition generated by sequential tooth formation and, in most cases, caused by mutations perturbing epithelial Wnt/β-catenin signaling. In addition, loss-of-function mutations in the Wnt feedback inhibitor  lead to human tooth agenesis. We have investigated the functions of Wnt/β-catenin signaling during sequential formation of molar teeth using mouse models. Continuous initiation of new teeth, which is observed after genetic activation of Wnt/β-catenin signaling in the oral epithelium, was accompanied by enhanced expression of Wnt antagonists and a downregulation of Wnt/β-catenin signaling in the dental mesenchyme. Genetic and pharmacological activation of mesenchymal Wnt/β-catenin signaling negatively regulated sequential tooth formation, an effect partly mediated by Bmp4. , a gene whose loss-of-function mutations result in sequential formation of supernumerary teeth in the human cleidocranial dysplasia syndrome, suppressed the expression of Wnt inhibitors  and  in dental mesenchyme. Our data indicate that increased mesenchymal Wnt signaling inhibits the sequential formation of teeth, and suggest that / antagonistic interactions modulate the level of mesenchymal Wnt/β-catenin signaling, underlying the contrasting dental phenotypes caused by human  and  mutations.

Mesenchymal Wnt/β-catenin signaling limits tooth number.

Development of teeth depends on the reciprocal interactions between the surface epithelium (ectoderm) and the underlying neural crest-derived mesenchyme. These interactions are facilitated by the conserved signaling pathways, which build a complex network of signals and transcription factors. Tooth development starts at specific and predetermined loci in the oral ectoderm and is described as a morphologically distinct thickening of oral ectoderm, named dental lamina. Cells within the dental lamina invaginate into the underlying mesenchyme, generating placodes that mark the onset of individual tooth development. In the following stages of development, the tooth epithelium buds and folds transitioning through various shapes, including bud, cap, and bell shapes, which also identify the specific stages of tooth development. Although much of the molecular regulation of tooth development has been unraveled, the regulation of the initial stages of tooth development, as well as the cellular mechanisms that govern tooth development remain largely unknown. This review provides a systematic overview of the current knowledge on the molecular and cellular mechanisms that guide initial stages of tooth development and outlines the challenges which temper the progress. Stem Cells 2019;37:26-32.

Concise Review: Cellular and Molecular Mechanisms Regulation of Tooth Initiation.

Continuous growth of the rodent incisor is enabled by epithelial and mesenchymal stem cells (ESCs and MSCs) which unceasingly replenish enamel and dentin, respectively, that wear by persistent animal gnawing. Lineage tracing studies have provided evidence that ESCs contribute to all epithelial lineages of the tooth in vivo. Meanwhile, in the mouse incisor, MSCs continuously contribute to odontoblast lineage and tooth growth. However, in vitro manipulation of ESCs has shown little progress, mainly due to lack of appropriate protocol to successfully isolate, culture, expand, and differentiate ESCs in vitro without using the co-culture system. In this chapter we describe the isolation of the Sox2-GFP+ cell population that is highly enriched in ESCs. Isolated cells can be used for various types of analyses, including in vitro culture, single cell-related analyses, etc. Furthermore, we describe ways to obtain populations enriched in the incisor MSCs using FACS sorting of antibody-labeled cells. Easily accessible FACS sorting enables easy and relatively fast isolation of the cells labeled by the fluorescent protein.

Isolation of Dental Stem Cell-Enriched Populations from Continuously Growing Mouse Incisors.

Continuous growth of the mouse incisor teeth is due to the life-long maintenance of epithelial stem cells (SCs) in their niche called cervical loop (CL). Several signaling factors regulate SC maintenance and/or their differentiation to achieve organ homeostasis. Previous studies indicated that Hedgehog signaling is crucial for both the maintenance of the SCs in the niche, as well as for their differentiation. How Hedgehog signaling regulates these two opposing cellular behaviors within the confinement of the CL remains elusive. In this study, we used in vitro organ and cell cultures to pharmacologically attenuate Hedgehog signaling. We analyzed expression of various genes expressed in the SC niche to determine the effect of altered Hedgehog signaling on the cellular hierarchy within the niche. These genes include markers of SCs (Sox2 and Lgr5) and transit-amplifying cells (P-cadherin, Sonic Hedgehog, and Yap). Our results show that Hedgehog signaling is a critical survival factor for SCs in the niche, and that the architecture and the diversity of the SC niche are regulated by multiple Hedgehog ligands. We demonstrated the presence of an additional Hedgehog ligand, nerve-derived Desert Hedgehog, secreted in the proximity of the CL. In addition, we provide evidence that Hedgehog receptors Ptch1 and Ptch2 elicit independent responses, which enable multimodal Hedgehog signaling to simultaneously regulate SC maintenance and differentiation. Our study indicates that the cellular hierarchy in the continuously growing incisor is a result of complex interplay of two Hedgehog ligands with functionally distinct Ptch receptors. Stem Cells 2019;37:1238-1248.

Functionally Distinctive Ptch Receptors Establish Multimodal Hedgehog Signaling in the Tooth Epithelial Stem Cell Niche.

Enamel is secreted by ameloblasts derived from tooth epithelial stem cells (SCs). Humans cannot repair or regenerate enamel, due to early loss of tooth epithelial SCs. Contrarily in the mouse incisors, epithelial SCs are maintained throughout life and endlessly generate ameloblasts, and thus enamel. Here we isolated Sox2-GFP+ tooth epithelial SCs which generated highly cellular spheres following a novel in vitro strategy. This system enabled analysis of SC regulation by various signaling molecules, and supported the stimulatory and inhibitory roles of Shh and Bmp, respectively; providing better insight into the heterogeneity of the SCs. Further, we generated a novel mouse reporter, Enamelin-tdTomato for identification of ameloblasts in live tissues and cells, and used it to demonstrate presence of ameloblasts in the new 3D co-culture system of dental SCs. Collectively, our results provide means of generating 3D tooth epithelium from adult SCs which can be utilized toward future generation of enamel.

Novel strategies for expansion of tooth epithelial stem cells and ameloblast generation.

Understanding cell types and mechanisms of dental growth is essential for reconstruction and engineering of teeth. Therefore, we investigated cellular composition of growing and non-growing mouse and human teeth. As a result, we report an unappreciated cellular complexity of the continuously-growing mouse incisor, which suggests a coherent model of cell dynamics enabling unarrested growth. This model relies on spatially-restricted stem, progenitor and differentiated populations in the epithelial and mesenchymal compartments underlying the coordinated expansion of two major branches of pulpal cells and diverse epithelial subtypes. Further comparisons of human and mouse teeth yield both parallelisms and differences in tissue heterogeneity and highlight the specifics behind growing and non-growing modes. Despite being similar at a coarse level, mouse and human teeth reveal molecular differences and species-specific cell subtypes suggesting possible evolutionary divergence. Overall, here we provide an atlas of human and mouse teeth with a focus on growth and differentiation.

Dental cell type atlas reveals stem and differentiated cell types in mouse and human teeth.

The continuously growing mouse incisor provides a fascinating model for studying stem cell regulation and organ renewal. In the incisor, epithelial and mesenchymal stem cells assure lifelong tooth growth. The epithelial stem cells reside in a niche known as the cervical loop. Mesenchymal stem cells are located in the nearby apical neurovascular bundle and in the neural plexus. So far, little is known about extracellular cues that are controlling incisor stem cell renewal and guidance. The extracellular matrix protein tenascin-W, also known as tenascin-N (TNN), is expressed in the mesenchyme of the pulp and of the periodontal ligament of the incisor, and is closely associated with collagen 3 fibers. Here, we report for the first time the phenotype of tenascin-W/TNN deficient mice, which in a C57BL/6N background exhibit a reduced body weight and lifespan. We found major defects in the alveolar bone and periodontal ligament of the growing rodent incisors, whereas molars were not affected. The alveolar bone around the incisor was replaced by a dense scar-like connective tissue, enriched with newly formed nerve fibers likely leading to periodontal pain, less food intake and reduced body weight. Using soft food to reduce mechanical load on the incisor partially rescued the phenotype.  hybridization and Gli1 reporter mouse experiments revealed decreased hedgehog signaling in the incisor mesenchymal stem cell compartment, which coordinates the development of mesenchymal stem cell niche. These results indicate that TNN deficiency in mice affects periodontal remodeling and increases nerve fiber branching. Through periodontal pain the food intake is reduced and the incisor renewal and the neurovascular sonic hedgehog secretion rate are reduced. In conclusion, tenascin-W/TNN seems to have a primary function in rapid periodontal tissue remodeling and a secondary function in mechanosensation.

Article	Year
Mesenchymal Wnt/β-Catenin Signaling Controls Epithelial Stem Cell Homeostasis in Teeth by Inhibiting the Antiapoptotic Effect of Fgf10. Stem cells (Dayton, Ohio)\| PubMed ID: 25693510	2015
Suppression of epithelial differentiation by Foxi3 is essential for molar crown patterning. Development (Cambridge, England)\| PubMed ID: 26450968	2015
Tissue Interactions Regulating Tooth Development and Renewal. Current topics in developmental biology\| PubMed ID: 26589925	2015
Mesenchymal Wnt/β-catenin signaling limits tooth number. Development (Cambridge, England)\| PubMed ID: 29437780	2018
Concise Review: Cellular and Molecular Mechanisms Regulation of Tooth Initiation. Stem cells (Dayton, Ohio)\| PubMed ID: 30270477	2019
Isolation of Dental Stem Cell-Enriched Populations from Continuously Growing Mouse Incisors. Methods in molecular biology (Clifton, N.J.)\| PubMed ID: 30838562	2019
Functionally Distinctive Ptch Receptors Establish Multimodal Hedgehog Signaling in the Tooth Epithelial Stem Cell Niche. Stem cells (Dayton, Ohio)\| PubMed ID: 31145830	2019
Novel strategies for expansion of tooth epithelial stem cells and ameloblast generation. Scientific reports\| PubMed ID: 32188889	2020
Dental cell type atlas reveals stem and differentiated cell types in mouse and human teeth. Nature communications\| PubMed ID: 32968047	2020
Pivotal Role of Tenascin-W (-N) in Postnatal Incisor Growth and Periodontal Ligament Remodeling. Frontiers in immunology\| PubMed ID: 33552067	2020

Anamaria Balic

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