three-dimensional-culture-vascularized-thermogenic-adipose-tissue

Three-Dimensional Culture of Vascularized Thermogenic Adipose Tissue from Microvascular Fragments

Engineering thermogenic adipose tissue (e.g., beige or brown adipose tissues) has been investigated as a potential therapy for metabolic diseases or for ...

University of Texas at San Antonio

A number of therapies are being developed that use microvessels isolated from adipose tissue (microvascular fragments [MVFs]) to improve tissue perfusion and implant survival. Because it has been demonstrated that stem cells are associated with microvessels, the purpose of these studies was to gain further insight into the stem cells associated with MVFs to better understand their therapeutic potential.

Characterization and multilineage potential of cells derived from isolated microvascular fragments.

Although skeletal muscle has a remarkable ability to repair/regenerate after most types of injuries, there is limited regeneration after volumetric muscle loss (VML). A number of scaffold materials have been used in the development of grafts to treat VML, however, there is still a need to better understand the most appropriate material with regards to its ability to maintain mechanical integrity while also supporting myogenesis. Five commonly used natural polymeric materials (Collagen I, Agarose, Alginate, Fibrin, and Collagen Chitosan) used in skeletal muscle tissue engineering grafts were evaluated for their mechanical properties and myogenic capacity. Rheological properties, water absorption rates, degradation stability, tensile characteristics, and the ability to support in vitro myogenesis were compared in all five materials. Collagen, Collagen Chitosan, and Fibrin demonstrated high elasticity and 100% stretch without failure, Agarose was the most brittle (20% max stretch), and Alginate demonstrated poor handleabilty. While Collagen was supportive of myogenesis, overall, Fibrin demonstrated the highest myogenic potential as indicated by the earliest and highest increases in myogenin and myosin heavy chain mRNA in satellite cells along with the most extensive myotube development as evaluated with immunohistochemistry. The findings herein support the notion that under the conditions used in this study, Fibrin is the most suitable scaffold for the development of scaffolds for skeletal muscle tissue engineering. Future studies are required to determine whether the differences in mechanical properties and myogenic potential observed in vitro in the current study translate to better skeletal muscle development in a VML injury model. © 2017 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Biomed Mater Res Part B: Appl Biomater, 106B: 672-679, 2018.

Natural polymeric hydrogel evaluation for skeletal muscle tissue engineering.

Muscle precursor cells (MPC) are integral to the maintenance of skeletal muscle and have recently been implicated in playing a role in bone repair. The primary objective of this study was to understand better the role of oxidative stress during the osteogenic differentiation of MPCs.

Ascorbic acid diminishes bone morphogenetic protein 2-induced osteogenic differentiation of muscle precursor cells.

Mesenchymal stromal cell (MSC)-derived extracellular vesicles (EVs) have great potential as a cell-free therapy in wound healing applications. Because EV populations are not equivalent, rigorous characterization is needed before clinical use. Although there has been much focus on their RNA composition and regenerative capabilities, relatively less is known regarding the effects of MSC cell type (adipose tissue [Ad-MSCs] or bone marrow [BM-MSCs]) and culture condition (monolayer or spheroid) on MSC-EV performance, including characteristics related to their ability to promote coagulation, which could determine EV safety if administered intravenously.

The effects of cell type and culture condition on the procoagulant activity of human mesenchymal stromal cell-derived extracellular vesicles.

There is a need to overcome the donor-site morbidity and loss of volume over time that accompanies the current clinical approaches to treat soft tissue defects caused by disease and trauma. The development of bioactive constructs that can regenerate adipose tissue have made great progress toward addressing the limitations of current therapies, but their lack of vascularization and ability to meet the significant dimension requirements of tissue defects limit their clinical translatability. Microvascular fragments (MVFs) can form extensive vascular networks and contain resident cells that have the ability to differentiate into adipocytes. Therefore, the objective of this study was to determine if vascularized adipose tissue could be engineered using a fibrin-based hydrogel containing MVFs as the sole source of microvessels and adipocyte-forming cells. The potential for MVFs from different fat depots (epididymal, inguinal, and subcutaneous) to form microvascular networks and generate adipocytes when exposed to growth media (GM), adipogenic differentiation media (ADM), or when treated with GM before adipogenic induction (i.e., they were allowed to presprout before adipogenic induction) was evaluated. MVFs treated with adipogenic induction media, both with and without presprouting, contained lipid droplets, had an increase in expression levels of genes associated with adipogenesis (adiponectin and fatty acid synthase [FAS]), and had an increased rate of lipolysis. MVFs allowed to presprout before ADM treatment maintained their ability to form vascular networks while maintaining an elevated lipid content, adipogenic gene expression, and lipolysis rate. Collectively, these results support the contention that MVFs can serve as the sole source of biologic material for creating a vascularized adipose tissue scaffold. Impact statement Microvascular fragments have both the ability to form extensive vascular networks and function as a source of adipocytes. These phenomena were exploited as vascularized adipose tissue was generated by first allowing for a period of angiogenesis before the adipogenic induction. This strategy has the ability to provide a means of both improving soft tissue reconstruction while also serving as a model to better understand adipose tissue expansion.

A Straightforward Approach to Engineer Vascularized Adipose Tissue Using Microvascular Fragments.

Mesenchymal stem/stromal cell (MSC)-derived extracellular vesicles (EVs) are a possible cell-free alternative to MSCs because they retain the regenerative potential of MSCs, while still mitigating some of their limitations (such as the possible elicitation of host immune responses). The promotion and restoration of angiogenesis, however, is an important component in treating trauma-related injuries, and has not been fully explored with EVs. Herein, we describe the effects of monolayer adipose-derived EVs, spheroid adipose-derived EVs (SAd-EVs), monolayer bone marrow-derived EVs (MBM-EVs), and spheroid bone marrow-derived EVs (SBM-EVs) on human umbilical vein endothelial cell (HUVEC) tube formation and mitochondrial respiration.

Human mesenchymal stromal cell source and culture conditions influence extracellular vesicle angiogenic and metabolic effects on human endothelial cells in vitro.

The development of ectopic adipose tissue in skeletal muscle is associated with several skeletal muscle and metabolic pathologies, including Type II Diabetes Mellitus. The adipogenic differentiation of muscle precursor cells (MPCs) has been postulated to occur in skeletal muscle in vivo in a three-dimensional (3-D) configuration; therefore, it is appropriate to investigate this phenomenon using 3-D matrices in vitro. The capacity for MPC adipogenic differentiation in a 3-D environment was investigated in fibrin hydrogels by treating MPCs derived from healthy or diabetic animals with adipogenic induction medias that differed in their ability to increase lipid accumulation and activate the expression of genes associated with adipogenic differentiation (peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPARG), adiponectin (ADIPOQ), and fatty acid synthase (FAS)). The capacity for adipogenic differentiation was diminished, but not prevented, if myogenic differentiation preceded MPC exposure to adipogenic induction conditions. Conversely, adipogenic differentiation was greater in hydrogels containing MPCs from diabetic rats as compared to those derived from lean rats, as evidenced by an increase in lipid accumulation and adipogenic gene expression. Collectively, the data herein support a role for the MPCs in adipogenesis in a 3-D environment and that they may contribute to the ectopic accumulation of adipose tissue. The observation that the potential for adipogenic differentiation is maintained even after a period of myogenic differentiation alludes to the possibility that adipogenesis may occur during different phases of muscle development. Finally, the increase in adipogenic differentiation in hydrogels containing MPCs derived from diabetic animals provides strong evidence that a pathological environment in vivo increases their capacity for adipogenesis.

Divergent effects of myogenic differentiation and diabetes on the capacity for muscle precursor cell adipogenic differentiation in a fibrin matrix.

Skeletal muscle is a tissue that is directly involved in the progression and persistence of type 2 diabetes (T2D), a disease that is becoming increasingly common. Gaining better insight into the mechanisms that are affecting skeletal muscle dysfunction in the context of T2D has the potential to lead to novel treatments for a large number of patients. Through its ability to emulate skeletal muscle architecture while also incorporating aspects of disease, tissue-engineered skeletal muscle (TE-SkM) has the potential to provide a means for rapid high-throughput discovery of therapies to treat skeletal muscle dysfunction, to include that which occurs with T2D. Muscle precursor cells isolated from lean or obese male Zucker diabetic fatty rats were used to generate TE-SkM constructs. Some constructs were treated with adipogenic induction media to accentuate the presence of adipocytes that is a characteristic feature of T2D skeletal muscle. The maturity (compaction and creatine kinase activity), mechanical integrity (Young's modulus), organization (myotube orientation), and metabolic capacity (insulin-stimulated glucose uptake) were all reduced by diabetes. Treating constructs with adipogenic induction media increased the quantity of lipid within the diabetic TE-SkM constructs, and caused changes in construct compaction, cell orientation, and insulin-stimulated glucose uptake in both lean and diabetic samples. Collectively, the findings herein suggest that the recapitulation of structural and metabolic aspects of T2D can be accomplished by engineering skeletal muscle .

Diabetic Conditions Confer Metabolic and Structural Modifications to Tissue-Engineered Skeletal Muscle.

Advances in the engineering of comprehensive skeletal muscle models  will improve drug screening platforms and can lead to better therapeutic approaches for the treatment of skeletal muscle injuries. To this end, a vascularized tissue-engineered skeletal muscle (TE-SkM) model that includes adipocytes was developed to better emulate the intramuscular adipose tissue that is observed in skeletal muscles of patients with diseases such as diabetes. Muscle precursor cells cultured with and without microvessels derived from adipose tissue (microvascular fragments) were used to generate TE-SkM constructs, with and without a microvasculature, respectively. TE-SkM constructs were treated with adipogenic induction media to induce varying levels of adipogenesis. With a delayed addition of induction media to allow for angiogenesis, a robust microvasculature in conjunction with an increased content of adipocytes was achieved. The augmentation of vascularized TE-SkM constructs with adipocytes caused a reduction in maturation (compaction), mechanical integrity (Young's modulus), and myotube and vessel alignment. An increase in basal glucose uptake was observed in both levels of adipogenic induction, and a diminished insulin-stimulated glucose uptake was associated with the higher level of adipogenic differentiation and the greater number of adipocytes.

Adipogenic Differentiation Alters Properties of Vascularized Tissue-Engineered Skeletal Muscle.

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) isolated from cardiosphere-derived cells (CDC-EVs) are coming to light as a unique cell-free therapeutic. Because of their novelty, however, there still exist prominent gaps in knowledge regarding their therapeutic potential. Herein the therapeutic potential of CDC-EVs in a rat model of acute traumatic coagulopathy induced by multiple injuries and hemorrhagic shock is outlined.

Extracellular vesicles derived from cardiosphere-derived cells as a potential antishock therapeutic.

Engineered beige adipose tissues could be used for screening therapeutic strategies or as a direct treatment for obesity and metabolic disease. Microvascular fragments are vessel structures that can be directly isolated from adipose tissue and may contain cells capable of differentiation into thermogenic, or beige, adipocytes. In this study, culture conditions were investigated to engineer three-dimensional, vascularized functional beige adipose tissue using microvascular fragments isolated from both healthy animals and a model of type II diabetes (T2D). Vascularized beige adipose tissues were engineered and exhibited increased expression of beige adipose markers, enhanced function, and improved cellular respiration. While microvascular fragments isolated from both lean and diabetic models were able to generate functional tissues, differences were observed in regard to vessel assembly and tissue function. This study introduces an approach that could be employed to engineer vascularized beige adipose tissues from a single, potentially autologous source of cells.

Engineering Functional Vascularized Beige Adipose Tissue from Microvascular Fragments of Models of Healthy and Type II Diabetes Conditions.

In this study, we described a method for generating functional, beige (thermogenic) adipose microtissues from human microvascular fragments (MVFs). The MVFs were isolated from adipose tissue acquired from adults over 50 years of age. The tissues express thermogenic gene markers and reproduce functions essential for the potential therapeutic impact of beige adipose tissues such as enhanced lipid metabolism and increased mitochondrial respiration. MVFs serve as a potential single, autologous source of cells that can be isolated from adult patients, induced to recreate functional aspects of beige adipose tissue and enable rapid vascularization post-transplantation. This approach has the potential to be used as an autologous therapy for metabolic diseases or as a model for the development of a personalized approach to high-throughput drug development/screening for adipose tissue.

Article	Year
Characterization and multilineage potential of cells derived from isolated microvascular fragments. The Journal of surgical research\| PubMed ID: 24969547	2014
Natural polymeric hydrogel evaluation for skeletal muscle tissue engineering. Journal of biomedical materials research. Part B, Applied biomaterials\| PubMed ID: 28306190	2018
Ascorbic acid diminishes bone morphogenetic protein 2-induced osteogenic differentiation of muscle precursor cells. Muscle & nerve\| PubMed ID: 30623463	2019
The effects of cell type and culture condition on the procoagulant activity of human mesenchymal stromal cell-derived extracellular vesicles. The journal of trauma and acute care surgery\| PubMed ID: 31246910	2019
A Straightforward Approach to Engineer Vascularized Adipose Tissue Using Microvascular Fragments. Tissue engineering. Part A\| PubMed ID: 32070226	2020
Human mesenchymal stromal cell source and culture conditions influence extracellular vesicle angiogenic and metabolic effects on human endothelial cells in vitro. The journal of trauma and acute care surgery\| PubMed ID: 32176171	2020
Divergent effects of myogenic differentiation and diabetes on the capacity for muscle precursor cell adipogenic differentiation in a fibrin matrix. Biochemical and biophysical research communications\| PubMed ID: 32192775	2020
Diabetic Conditions Confer Metabolic and Structural Modifications to Tissue-Engineered Skeletal Muscle. Tissue engineering. Part A\| PubMed ID: 32878567	2021
Adipogenic Differentiation Alters Properties of Vascularized Tissue-Engineered Skeletal Muscle. Tissue engineering. Part A\| PubMed ID: 34102861	2022
Extracellular vesicles derived from cardiosphere-derived cells as a potential antishock therapeutic. The journal of trauma and acute care surgery\| PubMed ID: 34108422	2021
Engineering Functional Vascularized Beige Adipose Tissue from Microvascular Fragments of Models of Healthy and Type II Diabetes Conditions. Journal of tissue engineering\| PubMed ID: 35782994	2022
Engineering Human Beige Adipose Tissue. Frontiers in bioengineering and biotechnology\| PubMed ID: 35845420	2022

Christopher R. Rathbone

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