generating-genetically-modified-plasmodium-berghei-sporozoites

Generating Genetically Modified <em>Plasmodium berghei</em> Sporozoites

Malaria is a deadly disease caused by the parasite Plasmodium and is transmitted through the bite of female Anopheles mosquitoes. The sporozoite stage of ...

University of Georgia

Pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) are known to be fundamental in instigating immune responses, but their role in influencing these responses beyond their initiation is less well understood. Here, using the protozoan parasite Trypanosoma cruzi, which is deficient in strong PAMPs, we demonstrate a requirement for the continuous expression of PAMPs for optimal anti-pathogen immunity. Although co-inoculating with, temporary anchoring of and transgenic expression of exogenous PAMPs all result in enhanced early adaptive immune responses, only the continuous expression of bacterial PAMPs on transgenic T. cruzi sustains these responses, resulting in enhanced pathogen clearance. These findings demonstrate that PAMPs function to potentiate adaptive immune responses well beyond their initiation and may determine the efficiency of control of pathogens capable of long-term persistence. 

Perpetual expression of PAMPs necessary for optimal immune control and clearance of a persistent pathogen.

Polyphosphate is a polymer of inorganic phosphate found in both prokaryotes and eukaryotes. Polyphosphate typically accumulates in acidic, calcium-rich organelles known as acidocalcisomes, and recent research demonstrated that vacuolar transporter chaperone 4 catalyzes its synthesis in yeast. The human pathogens Trypanosoma brucei and T. cruzi possess vacuolar transporter chaperone 4 homologs. We demonstrate that T. cruzi vacuolar transporter chaperone 4 localizes to acidocalcisomes of epimastigotes by immunofluorescence and immuno-electron microscopy and that the recombinant catalytic region of the T. cruzi enzyme is a polyphosphate kinase. RNA interference of the T. brucei enzyme in procyclic form parasites reduced short chain polyphosphate levels and resulted in accumulation of pyrophosphate. These results suggest that this trypanosome enzyme is an important component of a polyphosphate synthase complex that utilizes ATP to synthesize and translocate polyphosphate to acidocalcisomes in insect stages of these parasites.

The acidocalcisome vacuolar transporter chaperone 4 catalyzes the synthesis of polyphosphate in insect-stages of Trypanosoma brucei and T. cruzi.

During invasion of host cells by Trypanosoma cruzi, the parasite that causes Chagas disease, the elongated, flagellated trypomastigotes remodel into oval amastigotes with no external flagellum. The underlying mechanism of this remodeling and the fate of the flagellum are obscure. We discovered that T. cruzi trypomastigotes discard their flagella via an asymmetric cellular division. The flagellar proteins liberated become among the earliest parasite proteins to enter the MHC-I processing pathway in infected cells. Indeed, paraflagellar rod protein PAR4-specific CD8(+) T cells detect infected host cells >20 hr earlier than immunodominant trans-sialidase-specific T cells. Overexpression of PAR4 in T. cruzi enhanced the subdominant PAR4-specific CD8(+) T cell response, resulting in improved control of a challenge infection. These results provide insights into previously unappreciated events in intracellular invasion by T. cruzi and highlight the importance of T cells that recognize infected host cells early in the infectious process, in the control of infections.

The Trypanosoma cruzi flagellum is discarded via asymmetric cell division following invasion and provides early targets for protective CD8⁺ T cells.

Trypanosoma cruzi is a protozoan parasite of humans and animals, affecting 10 to 20 million people and innumerable animals, primarily in the Americas. Despite being the largest cause of infection-induced heart disease worldwide, even among the neglected tropical diseases (NTDs) T. cruzi is considered one of the least well understood and understudied. The genetic complexity of T. cruzi as well as the limited set of efficient techniques for genome engineering contribute significantly to the relative lack of progress in and understanding of this pathogen. Here, we adapted the CRISPR-Cas9 system for the genetic engineering of T. cruzi, demonstrating rapid and efficient knockout of multiple endogenous genes, including essential genes. We observed that in the absence of a template, repair of the Cas9-induced double-stranded breaks (DSBs) in T. cruzi occurs exclusively by microhomology-mediated end joining (MMEJ) with various-sized deletions. When a template for DNA repair is provided, DSB repair by homologous recombination is achieved at an efficiency several orders of magnitude higher than that in the absence of CRISPR-Cas9-induced DSBs. We also demonstrate the high multiplexing capacity of CRISPR-Cas9 in T. cruzi by knocking down expression of an enzyme gene family consisting of 65 members, resulting in a significant reduction of enzymatic product with no apparent off-target mutations. Lastly, we show that Cas9 can mediate disruption of its own coding sequence, rescuing a growth defect in stable Cas9-expressing parasites. These results establish a powerful new tool for the analysis of gene functions in T. cruzi, enabling the study of essential genes and their functions and analysis of the many large families of related genes that occupy a substantial portion of the T. cruzi genome.

CRISPR-Cas9-mediated single-gene and gene family disruption in Trypanosoma cruzi.

Malaria, caused by the protozoan  is a devastating disease with over 200 million new cases reported globally every year. Although immunization is arguably the best strategy to eliminate malaria, despite decades of research in this area we do not have an effective, clinically approved antimalarial vaccine. The current impetus in the field is to develop vaccines directed at the pre-erythrocytic developmental stages of , utilizing novel vaccination platforms. We here review the most promising pre-erythrocytic stage antimalarial vaccine candidates.

Pre-Erythrocytic Vaccines against Malaria.

CRISPR/Cas9 technology has revolutionized rapid and reliable gene editing in cells. Although many cell types have been subjected to CRISPR/Cas9-mediated gene editing, there is no evidence of success in genetic alteration of Ag-experienced memory CD8 T cells. In this study, we show that CRISPR/Cas9-mediated gene editing in memory CD8 T cells precludes their proliferation after Ag re-encounter in vivo. This defect is mediated by the proapoptotic transcription factor p53, a sensor of DNA damage. Temporarily inhibiting p53 function offers a window of opportunity for the memory CD8 T cells to repair the DNA damage, facilitating robust recall responses on Ag re-encounter. We demonstrate this by functionally altering memory CD8 T cells using CRISPR/Cas9-mediated targeted gene disruption under the aegis of p53siRNA in the mouse model. Our approach thus adapts the CRISPR/Cas9 technology for memory CD8 T cells to undertake gene editing in vivo, for the first time, to our knowledge.

p53 Hinders CRISPR/Cas9-Mediated Targeted Gene Disruption in Memory CD8 T Cells In Vivo.

Malaria is a devastating disease impacting over half of the world's population. Plasmodium parasites that cause malaria undergo obligatory development and replication in hepatocytes before infecting red blood cells and initiating clinical disease. While type I interferons (IFNs) are known to facilitate innate immune control to Plasmodium in the liver, how they do so has remained unresolved, precluding the manipulation of such responses to combat malaria. Utilizing transcriptomics, infection studies, and a transgenic Plasmodium strain that exports and traffics Cre recombinase, we show that direct type I IFN signaling in Plasmodium-infected hepatocytes is necessary to control malaria. We also show that the majority of infected hepatocytes naturally eliminate Plasmodium infection, revealing the potential existence of anti-malarial cell-autonomous immune responses in such hepatocytes. These discoveries challenge the existing paradigms in Plasmodium immunobiology and are expected to inspire anti-malarial drugs and vaccine strategies.

Direct type I interferon signaling in hepatocytes controls malaria.

Malaria is a deadly disease caused by the parasite, , and impacts the lives of millions of people around the world. Following inoculation into mammalian hosts by infected mosquitoes, the sporozoite stage of  undergoes obligate development in the liver before infecting erythrocytes and causing clinical malaria. The most promising vaccine candidates for malaria rely on the use of attenuated live sporozoites to induce protective immune responses. The scope of widespread testing or clinical use of such vaccines is limited by the absence of efficient, reliable, or transparent strategies for the long-term preservation of live sporozoites. Here we outline a method to cryopreserve the sporozoites of various human and murine  species. We found that the structural integrity, viability, and in vivo or in vitro infectiousness were conserved in the recovered cryopreserved sporozoites. Cryopreservation using our approach also retained the transgenic properties of sporozoites and immunization with cryopreserved radiation attenuated sporozoites (RAS) elicited strong immune responses. Our work offers a reliable protocol for the long-term storage and recovery of human and murine  sporozoites and lays the groundwork for the widespread use of live sporozoites for research and clinical applications.

Cryopreservation of  Sporozoites.

Malaria, caused by  parasites is a severe disease affecting millions of people around the world.  undergoes obligatory development and replication in the hepatocytes, before initiating the life-threatening blood-stage of malaria. Although the natural immune responses impeding  infection and development in the liver are key to controlling clinical malaria and transmission, those remain relatively unknown. Here we demonstrate that the DNA of  parasites is sensed by cytosolic AIM2 (absent in melanoma 2) receptors in the infected hepatocytes, resulting in Caspase-1 activation. Remarkably, Caspase-1 was observed to undergo unconventional proteolytic processing in hepatocytes, resulting in the activation of the membrane pore-forming protein, Gasdermin D, but not inflammasome-associated proinflammatory cytokines. Nevertheless, this resulted in the elimination of -infected hepatocytes and the control of malaria infection in the liver. Our study uncovers a pathway of natural immunity critical for the control of malaria in the liver.

Article	Year
Perpetual expression of PAMPs necessary for optimal immune control and clearance of a persistent pathogen. Nature communications\| PubMed ID: 24149620	2013
The acidocalcisome vacuolar transporter chaperone 4 catalyzes the synthesis of polyphosphate in insect-stages of Trypanosoma brucei and T. cruzi. The Journal of eukaryotic microbiology\| PubMed ID: 24386955	2014
The Trypanosoma cruzi flagellum is discarded via asymmetric cell division following invasion and provides early targets for protective CD8⁺ T cells. Cell host & microbe\| PubMed ID: 25299330	2014
CRISPR-Cas9-mediated single-gene and gene family disruption in Trypanosoma cruzi. mBio\| PubMed ID: 25550322	2014
Pre-Erythrocytic Vaccines against Malaria. Vaccines\| PubMed ID: 32708179	2020
p53 Hinders CRISPR/Cas9-Mediated Targeted Gene Disruption in Memory CD8 T Cells In Vivo. Journal of immunology (Baltimore, Md. : 1950)\| PubMed ID: 32887747	2020
Direct type I interferon signaling in hepatocytes controls malaria. Cell reports\| PubMed ID: 35858541	2022
Cryopreservation of Sporozoites. Pathogens (Basel, Switzerland)\| PubMed ID: 36558821	2022
AIM2 sensors mediate immunity to infection in hepatocytes. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America\| PubMed ID: 36595704	2023

Samarchith P. Kurup

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