high-throughput-dissociation-orthotopic-implantation-breast-cancer

High-Throughput Dissociation and Orthotopic Implantation of Breast Cancer Patient-Derived Xenografts

Patient-derived xenografts (PDXs) provide a clinically relevant method for recapitulating tumor-involved cell types and the tumor microenvironment, which ...

West Virginia University School of Medicine

Aurora A kinase (AURKA) is overexpressed in 96% of human cancers and is considered an independent marker of poor prognosis. While the majority of tumors have elevated levels of AURKA protein, few have AURKA gene amplification, implying that posttranscriptional mechanisms regulating AURKA protein levels are significant. Here, we show that NEDD9, a known activator of AURKA, is directly involved in AURKA stability. Analysis of a comprehensive breast cancer tissue microarray revealed a tight correlation between the expression of both proteins, significantly corresponding with increased prognostic value. A decrease in AURKA, concomitant with increased ubiquitination and proteasome-dependent degradation, occurs due to depletion or knockout of NEDD9. Reexpression of wild-type NEDD9 was sufficient to rescue the observed phenomenon. Binding of NEDD9 to AURKA is critical for AURKA stabilization, as mutation of S296E was sufficient to disrupt binding and led to reduced AURKA protein levels. NEDD9 confers AURKA stability by limiting the binding of the cdh1-substrate recognition subunit of APC/C ubiquitin ligase to AURKA. Depletion of NEDD9 in tumor cells increases sensitivity to AURKA inhibitors. Combination therapy with NEDD9 short hairpin RNAs and AURKA inhibitors impairs tumor growth and distant metastasis in mice harboring xenografts of breast tumors. Collectively, our findings provide rationale for the use of AURKA inhibitors in treatment of metastatic tumors and predict the sensitivity of the patients to AURKA inhibitors based on NEDD9 expression.

NEDD9 depletion destabilizes Aurora A kinase and heightens the efficacy of Aurora A inhibitors: implications for treatment of metastatic solid tumors.

The scaffolding protein NEDD9 is an established prometastatic marker in several cancers. Nevertheless, the molecular mechanisms of NEDD9-driven metastasis in cancers remain ill-defined. Here, using a comprehensive breast cancer tissue microarray, it was shown that increased levels of NEDD9 protein significantly correlated with the transition from carcinoma in situ to invasive carcinoma. Similarly, it was shown that NEDD9 overexpression is a hallmark of highly invasive breast cancer cells. Moreover, NEDD9 expression is crucial for the protease-dependent mesenchymal invasion of cancer cells at the primary site but not at the metastatic site. Depletion of NEDD9 is sufficient to suppress invasion of tumor cells in vitro and in vivo, leading to decreased circulating tumor cells and lung metastases in xenograft models. Mechanistically, NEDD9 localized to invasive pseudopods and was required for local matrix degradation. Depletion of NEDD9 impaired invasion of cancer cells through inactivation of membrane-bound matrix metalloproteinase MMP14 by excess TIMP2 on the cell surface. Inactivation of MMP14 is accompanied by reduced collagenolytic activity of soluble metalloproteinases MMP2 and MMP9. Reexpression of NEDD9 is sufficient to restore the activity of MMP14 and the invasive properties of breast cancer cells in vitro and in vivo. Collectively, these findings uncover critical steps in NEDD9-dependent invasion of breast cancer cells.

NEDD9 depletion leads to MMP14 inactivation by TIMP2 and prevents invasion and metastasis.

The prometastatic protein NEDD9 (neural precursor cell expressed, developmentally downregulated 9) is highly expressed in many cancers and is required for mesenchymal individual cell migration and progression to the invasive stage. Nevertheless, the molecular mechanisms of NEDD9-driven migration and the downstream targets effecting metastasis are not well defined. In the current study, knockdown of NEDD9 in highly metastatic tumor cells drastically reduces their migratory capacity due to disruption of actin dynamics at the leading edge. Specifically, NEDD9 deficiency leads to a decrease in the persistence and stability of lamellipodial protrusions similar to knockdown of cortactin (CTTN). Mechanistically, it was shown that NEDD9 binds to and regulates acetylation of CTTN in an Aurora A kinase (AURKA)/HDAC6-dependent manner. The knockdown of NEDD9 or AURKA results in an increase in the amount of acetylated CTTN and a decrease in the binding of CTTN to F-actin. Overexpression of the deacetylation mimicking (9KR) mutant of CTTN is sufficient to restore actin dynamics at the leading edge and migration proficiency of the tumor cells. Inhibition of AURKA and HDAC6 activity by alisertib and Tubastatin A in xenograft models of breast cancer leads to a decrease in the number of pulmonary metastases. Collectively, these findings identify CTTN as the key downstream component of NEDD9-driven migration and metastatic phenotypes.

NEDD9 regulates actin dynamics through cortactin deacetylation in an AURKA/HDAC6-dependent manner.

NEDD9 is an established marker of invasive and metastatic cancers. NEDD9 downregulation has been shown to dramatically reduce cell invasion and metastasis in multiple tumors. The mechanisms by which NEDD9 regulates invasion are largely unknown. In the current study, we have found that NEDD9 is required for matrix metalloproteinase 14 (MMP14) enzymatic recovery/recycling through the late endosomes to enable disengagement of tissue inhibitor of matrix metalloproteinase 2 (TIMP2) and tumor invasion. Depletion of NEDD9 decreases targeting of the MMP14/TIMP2 complex to late endosomes and increases trafficking of MMP14 from early/sorting endosomes back to the surface in a small GTPase ADP ribosylation factor-6 (Arf6)-dependent manner. NEDD9 directly binds to Arf6-GTPase-activating protein, ARAP3 and Arf6-effector GGA3, thereby facilitating the Arf6 inactivation required for MMP14/TIMP2 targeting to late endosomes. Re-expression of NEDD9 or a decrease in Arf6 activity is sufficient to restore MMP14 activity and the invasive properties of tumor cells. Importantly, NEDD9 inhibition by Vivo-Morpholinos, an antisense therapy, decreases primary tumor growth and metastasis in xenograft models of breast cancer. Collectively, our findings uncover a novel mechanism to control tumor-cell dissemination through NEDD9/Arf6-dependent regulation of MMP14/TIMP2 trafficking, and validate NEDD9 as a clinically relevant therapeutic target to treat metastatic cancer.

NEDD9/Arf6-dependent endocytic trafficking of matrix metalloproteinase 14: a novel mechanism for blocking mesenchymal cell invasion and metastasis of breast cancer.

The dissemination of tumor cells relies on efficient cell adhesion and migration, which in turn depends upon endocytic trafficking of integrins. In the current work, it was found that depletion of the prometastatic protein, NEDD9, in breast cancer cells results in a significant decrease in individual cell migration due to impaired trafficking of ligand-bound integrins. NEDD9 deficiency does not affect the expression or internalization of integrins but heightens caveolae-dependent trafficking of ligand-bound integrins to early endosomes. Increase in mobility of ligand-bound integrins is concomitant with an increase in tyrosine phosphorylation of caveolin-1 (CAV1) and volume of CAV1-vesicles. NEDD9 directly binds to CAV1 and colocalizes within CAV1 vesicles. In the absence of NEDD9, the trafficking of ligand-bound integrins from early to late endosomes is impaired, resulting in a significant decrease in degradation of ligand-integrin complexes and an increase in recycling of ligand-bound integrins from early endosomes back to the plasma membrane without ligand disengagement, thus leading to low adhesion and migration. Reexpression of NEDD9 or decrease in the amount of active, tyrosine 14 phosphorylated (Tyr14) CAV1 in NEDD9-depleted cells rescues the integrin trafficking deficiency and restores cellular adhesion and migration capacity. Collectively, these findings indicate that NEDD9 orchestrates trafficking of ligand-bound integrins through the attenuation of CAV1 activity.

Prometastatic NEDD9 Regulates Individual Cell Migration via Caveolin-1-Dependent Trafficking of Integrins.

AF1q is an MLL fusion partner that was identified from acute myeloid leukemia (AML) patients with t (1; 11) (q21; q23) chromosomal abnormality. The function of AF1q is not yet fully known, however, elevated AF1q expression is associated with poor clinical outcomes in various malignancies. Here, we show that AF1q specifically binds to T-cell-factor-7 (TCF7) in the Wnt signaling pathway and results in transcriptional activation of CD44 as well as multiple downstream targets of the TCF7/LEF1. In addition, enhanced AF1q expression promotes breast cancer cell proliferation, migration, mammosphere formation, and chemo-resistance. In xenograft models, enforced AF1q expression in breast cancer cells also promotes liver metastasis and lung colonization. In a cohort of 63 breast cancer patients, higher percentages of AF1q-positive cancer cells in primary sites were associated with significantly poorer overall survival (OS), disease-free survival (DFS), and brain metastasis-free survival (b-MFS). Using paired primary/metastatic samples from the same patients, we demonstrate that AF1q-positive breast cancer cells become dynamically dominant in the metastatic sites compared to the primary sites. Our findings indicate that breast cancer cells with a hyperactive AF1q/TCF7/CD44 regulatory axis in the primary sites may represent "metastatic founder cells" which have invasive properties.

AF1q is a novel TCF7 co-factor which activates CD44 and promotes breast cancer metastasis.

Recent findings suggest that the inhibition of Aurora A (AURKA) kinase may offer a novel treatment strategy against metastatic cancers. In the current study, we determined the effects of AURKA inhibition by the small molecule inhibitor MLN8237 both as a monotherapy and in combination with the microtubule-targeting drug eribulin on different stages of metastasis in triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) and defined the potential mechanism of its action. MLN8237 as a single agent and in combination with eribulin affected multiple steps in the metastatic process, including migration, attachment, and proliferation in distant organs, resulting in suppression of metastatic colonization and recurrence of cancer. Eribulin application induces accumulation of active AURKA in TNBC cells, providing foundation for the combination therapy. Mechanistically, AURKA inhibition induces cytotoxic autophagy via activation of the LC3B/p62 axis and inhibition of pAKT, leading to eradication of metastases, but has no effect on growth of mammary tumor. Combination of MLN8237 with eribulin leads to a synergistic increase in apoptosis in mammary tumors, as well as cytotoxic autophagy in metastases. These preclinical data provide a new understanding of the mechanisms by which MLN8237 mediates its antimetastatic effects and advocates for its combination with eribulin in future clinical trials for metastatic breast cancer and early-stage solid tumors. Mol Cancer Ther; 15(8); 1809-22. ©2016 AACR.

Combination of Eribulin and Aurora A Inhibitor MLN8237 Prevents Metastatic Colonization and Induces Cytotoxic Autophagy in Breast Cancer.

Commonly upregulated in human cancers, the scaffolding protein NEDD9/HEF1 is a known regulator of mesenchymal migration and cancer cell plasticity. However, the functional role of NEDD9 as a regulator of different migration/invasion modes in the context of breast cancer metastasis is currently unknown. Here, it is reported that NEDD9 is necessary for both mesenchymal and amoeboid individual cell migration/invasion in triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC). NEDD9 deficiency results in acquisition of the amoeboid morphology, but severely limits all types of cell motility. Mechanistically, NEDD9 promotes mesenchymal migration via VAV2-dependent Rac1 activation, and depletion of VAV2 impairs the ability of NEDD9 to activate Rac1. In addition, NEDD9 supports a mesenchymal phenotype through stimulating polymerization of actin via promoting CTTN phosphorylation in an AURKA-dependent manner. Interestingly, an increase in RhoA activity in NEDD9-depleted cells does not facilitate a switch to functional amoeboid motility, indicating a role of NEDD9 in the regulation of downstream RhoA signaling effectors. Simultaneous depletion of NEDD9 or inhibition of AURKA in combination with inhibition of the amoeboid driver ROCK results in an additional decrease in cancer cell migration/invasion. Finally, we confirmed that a dual targeting strategy is a viable and efficient therapeutic approach to hinder the metastasis of breast cancer in xenograft models, showcasing the important need for further clinical evaluation of this regimen to impede the spread of disease and improve patient survival. This study provides new insight into the therapeutic benefit of combining NEDD9 depletion with ROCK inhibition to reduce tumor cell dissemination and discovers a new regulatory role of NEDD9 in the modulation of VAV2-dependent activation of Rac1 and actin polymerization. .

Dual Targeting of Mesenchymal and Amoeboid Motility Hinders Metastatic Behavior.

The primary cilium is a ubiquitous organelle presented on most human cells. It is a crucial signaling hub for multiple pathways including growth factor and G-protein coupled receptors. Loss of primary cilia, observed in various cancers, has been shown to affect cell proliferation. Primary cilia formation is drastically decreased in glioblastoma (GBM), however, the role of cilia in normal astrocyte or glioblastoma proliferation has not been explored. Here, we report that loss of primary cilia in human astrocytes stimulates growth rate in a lysophosphatidic acid (LPA)-dependent manner. We show that lysophosphatidic acid receptor 1 (LPAR1) is accumulated in primary cilia. LPAR1 signaling through Gα12/Gαq was previously reported to be responsible for cancer cell proliferation. We found that in ciliated cells, Gα12 and Gαq are excluded from the cilium, creating a barrier against unlimited proliferation, one of the hallmarks of cancer. Upon loss of primary cilia, LPAR1 redistributes to the plasma membrane with a concomitant increase in LPAR1 association with Gα12 and Gαq. Inhibition of LPA signaling with the small molecule compound Ki16425 in deciliated highly proliferative astrocytes or glioblastoma patient-derived cells/xenografts drastically suppresses their growth both in vitro and in vivo. Moreover, Ki16425 brain delivery via PEG-PLGA nanoparticles inhibited tumor progression in an intracranial glioblastoma PDX model. Overall, our findings establish a novel mechanism by which primary cilium restricts proliferation and indicate that loss of primary cilia is sufficient to increase mitogenic signaling, and is important for the maintenance of a highly proliferative phenotype. Clinical application of LPA inhibitors may prove beneficial to restrict glioblastoma growth and ensure local control of disease.

LPA signaling is regulated through the primary cilium: a novel target in glioblastoma.

This study tested the hypothesis that a patient-derived orthotopic xenograft (PDOX) model would recapitulate the common clinical phenomenon of breast cancer-induced skeletal muscle (SkM) fatigue in the absence of muscle wasting. This study additionally sought to identify drivers of this condition to facilitate the development of therapeutic agents for patients with breast cancer experiencing muscle fatigue.

Human Breast Cancer Xenograft Model Implicates Peroxisome Proliferator-activated Receptor Signaling as Driver of Cancer-induced Muscle Fatigue.

Increased susceptibility to fatigue is a negative predictor of survival commonly experienced by women with breast cancer (BC). Here, we sought to identify molecular changes induced in human skeletal muscle by BC regardless of treatment history or tumor molecular subtype using RNA-sequencing (RNA-seq) and proteomic analyses. Mitochondrial dysfunction was apparent across all molecular subtypes, with the greatest degree of transcriptomic changes occurring in women with HER2/neu-overexpressing tumors, though muscle from patients of all subtypes exhibited similar pathway-level dysregulation. Interestingly, we found no relationship between anticancer treatments and muscle gene expression, suggesting that fatigue is a product of BC per se rather than clinical history. In vitro and in vivo experimentation confirmed the ability of BC cells to alter mitochondrial function and ATP content in muscle. These data suggest that interventions supporting muscle in the presence of BC-induced mitochondrial dysfunction may alleviate fatigue and improve the lives of women with BC.

Skeletal muscle reprogramming by breast cancer regardless of treatment history or tumor molecular subtype.

Metastatic breast cancer causes most breast cancer-associated deaths, especially in triple negative breast cancers (TNBC). The metastatic drivers of TNBCs are still poorly understood, and effective treatment non-existent. Here we reveal that the presence of Aurora-A Kinase (AURKA) in the nucleus and metastatic dissemination are molecularly connected through HIF1 (Hypoxia-Inducible Factor-1) signaling. Nuclear AURKA activates transcription of "hypoxia-induced genes" under normoxic conditions (pseudohypoxia) and without upregulation of oxygen-sensitive HIF1A subunit. We uncover that AURKA preferentially binds to HIF1B and co-localizes with the HIF complex on DNA. The mass-spectrometry analysis of the AURKA complex further confirmed the presence of CBP and p300 along with other TFIIB/RNApol II components. Importantly, the expression of multiple HIF-dependent genes induced by nuclear AURKA (N-AURKA), including migration/invasion, survival/death, and stemness, promote early cancer dissemination. These results indicate that nuclear, but not cytoplasmic, AURKA is a novel driver of early metastasis. Analysis of clinical tumor specimens revealed a correlation between N-AURKA presence and decreased patient survival. Our results establish a mechanistic link between two critical pathways in cancer metastasis, identifying nuclear AURKA as a crucial upstream regulator of the HIF1 transcription complex and a target for anti-metastatic therapy.

Nuclear Aurora-A kinase-induced hypoxia signaling drives early dissemination and metastasis in breast cancer: implications for detection of metastatic tumors.

Article	Year
NEDD9 depletion destabilizes Aurora A kinase and heightens the efficacy of Aurora A inhibitors: implications for treatment of metastatic solid tumors. Cancer research\| PubMed ID: 23539442	2013
NEDD9 depletion leads to MMP14 inactivation by TIMP2 and prevents invasion and metastasis. Molecular cancer research : MCR\| PubMed ID: 24202705	2014
NEDD9 regulates actin dynamics through cortactin deacetylation in an AURKA/HDAC6-dependent manner. Molecular cancer research : MCR\| PubMed ID: 24574519	2014
NEDD9/Arf6-dependent endocytic trafficking of matrix metalloproteinase 14: a novel mechanism for blocking mesenchymal cell invasion and metastasis of breast cancer. Oncogene\| PubMed ID: 25241893	2015
Prometastatic NEDD9 Regulates Individual Cell Migration via Caveolin-1-Dependent Trafficking of Integrins. Molecular cancer research : MCR\| PubMed ID: 25319010	2015
AF1q is a novel TCF7 co-factor which activates CD44 and promotes breast cancer metastasis. Oncotarget\| PubMed ID: 26079538	2015
Combination of Eribulin and Aurora A Inhibitor MLN8237 Prevents Metastatic Colonization and Induces Cytotoxic Autophagy in Breast Cancer. Molecular cancer therapeutics\| PubMed ID: 27235164	2016
Dual Targeting of Mesenchymal and Amoeboid Motility Hinders Metastatic Behavior. Molecular cancer research : MCR\| PubMed ID: 28235899	2017
LPA signaling is regulated through the primary cilium: a novel target in glioblastoma. Oncogene\| PubMed ID: 29321663	2018
Human Breast Cancer Xenograft Model Implicates Peroxisome Proliferator-activated Receptor Signaling as Driver of Cancer-induced Muscle Fatigue. Clinical cancer research : an official journal of the American Association for Cancer Research\| PubMed ID: 30559167	2019
Skeletal muscle reprogramming by breast cancer regardless of treatment history or tumor molecular subtype. NPJ breast cancer\| PubMed ID: 32550263	2020
Nuclear Aurora-A kinase-induced hypoxia signaling drives early dissemination and metastasis in breast cancer: implications for detection of metastatic tumors. Oncogene\| PubMed ID: 34326467	2021

Elena Pugacheva

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