a-cardiac-microphysiological-system-for-studying-ca2-propagation-via

A Cardiac Microphysiological System for Studying Ca<sup>2+</sup> Propagation via Non-genetic Optical Stimulation

In vitro cardiac microphysiological models are highly reliable for scientific research, drug development, and medical applications. Although widely ...

Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia

Harvard University

University of Bologna

The use of light for triggering skeletal and cardiac muscles allows lower invasiveness higher selectivity and unprecedented possibility to target individual cells or even subcellular compartments in a temporally and spatially precise manner. Because cells are in general transparent, this requires the development of suitable interfaces that bestow light sensitivity to living matter. In the present work, successfully demonstrated is the use of conjugated polymer films as transducer to optically enhance the contraction rate of a human and patient-specific cardiac in vitro cell model. By different experimental approaches, the coupling mechanism to the photothermal effect is assigned. This work extends the range of application of the polymer-mediated cell photostimulation phenomenon to cardiac muscle cells, opening up possible applications in cardiac therapy and for implementation of in vitro studies.

Optical Pacing of Human-Induced Pluripotent Stem Cell-Derived Cardiomyocytes Mediated by a Conjugated Polymer Interface.

Optical technologies allowing modulation of neuronal activity at high spatio-temporal resolution are becoming paramount in neuroscience. In this respect, azobenzene-based photoswitches are promising nanoscale tools for neuronal photostimulation. Here we engineered a light-sensitive azobenzene compound (Ziapin2) that stably partitions into the plasma membrane and causes its thinning through trans-dimerization in the dark, resulting in an increased membrane capacitance at steady state. We demonstrated that in neurons loaded with the compound, millisecond pulses of visible light induce a transient hyperpolarization followed by a delayed depolarization that triggers action potential firing. These effects are persistent and can be evoked in vivo up to 7 days, proving the potential of Ziapin2 for the modulation of membrane capacitance in the millisecond timescale, without directly affecting ion channels or local temperature.

Neuronal firing modulation by a membrane-targeted photoswitch.

The non-covalent affinity of photoresponsive molecules to biotargets represents an attractive tool for achieving effective cell photo-stimulation. Here, an amphiphilic azobenzene that preferentially dwells within the plasma membrane is studied. In particular, its isomerization dynamics in different media is investigated. It is found that in molecular aggregates formed in water, the isomerization reaction is hindered, while radiative deactivation is favored. However, once protected by a lipid shell, the photochromic molecule reacquires its ultrafast photoisomerization capacity. This behavior is explained considering collective excited states that may form in aggregates, locking the conformational dynamics and redistributing the oscillator strength. By applying the pump probe technique in different media, an isomerization time in the order of 10 ps is identified and the deactivation in the aggregate in water is also characterized. Finally, it is demonstrated that the reversible modulation of membrane potential of HEK293 cells via illumination with visible light can be indeed related to the recovered trans→cis photoreaction in lipid membrane. These data fully account for the recently reported experiments in neurons, showing that the amphiphilic azobenzenes, once partitioned in the cell membrane, are effective light actuators for the modification of the electrical state of the membrane.

Membrane Environment Enables Ultrafast Isomerization of Amphiphilic Azobenzene.

Photothermal perturbation of the cell membrane is typically achieved using transducers that convert light into thermal energy, eventually heating the cell membrane. In turn, this leads to the modulation of the membrane electrical capacitance that is assigned to a geometrical modification of the membrane structure. However, the nature of such a change is not understood. In this work, we employ an all-optical spectroscopic approach, based on the use of fluorescent probes, to monitor the membrane polarity, viscosity, and order directly in living cells under thermal excitation transduced by a photoexcited polymer film. We report two major results. First, we show that rising temperature does not just change the geometry of the membrane but indeed it affects the membrane dielectric characteristics by water penetration. Second, we find an additional effect, which is peculiar for the photoexcited semiconducting polymer film, that contributes to the system perturbation and that we tentatively assigned to the photoinduced polarization of the polymer interface.

Shedding Light on Thermally Induced Optocapacitance at the Organic Biointerface.

Solution-processed, large-area, and flexible electronics largely relies on the excellent electronic properties of sp -hybridized carbon molecules, either in the form of π-conjugated small molecules and polymers or graphene and carbon nanotubes. Carbon with sp-hybridization, the foundation of the elusive allotrope carbyne, offers vast opportunities for functionalized molecules in the form of linear carbon atomic wires (CAWs), with intriguing and even superior predicted electronic properties. While CAWs represent a vibrant field of research, to date, they have only been applied sparingly to molecular devices. The recent observation of the field-effect in microcrystalline cumulenes suggests their potential applications in solution-processed thin-film transistors but concerns surrounding the stability and electronic performance have precluded developments in this direction. In the present study, ideal field-effect characteristics are demonstrated for solution-processed thin films of tetraphenyl[3]cumulene, the shortest semiconducting CAW. Films are deposited through a scalable, large-area, meniscus-coating technique, providing transistors with hole mobilities in excess of 0.1 cm V s , as well as promising operational stability under dark conditions. These results offer a solid foundation for the exploitation of a vast class of molecular semiconductors for organic electronics based on sp-hybridized carbon systems and create a previously unexplored paradigm.

Stable and Solution-Processable Cumulenic sp-Carbon Wires: A New Paradigm for Organic Electronics.

Non-genetic photostimulation is a novel and rapidly growing multidisciplinary field that aims to induce light-sensitivity in living systems by exploiting exogeneous phototransducers. Here, we propose an intramembrane photoswitch, based on an azobenzene derivative (Ziapin2), for optical pacing of human-induced pluripotent stem cell-derived cardiomyocytes (hiPSC-CMs). The light-mediated stimulation process has been studied by applying several techniques to detect the effect on the cell properties. In particular, we recorded changes in membrane capacitance, in membrane potential (V), and modulation of intracellular Ca dynamics. Finally, cell contractility was analyzed using a custom MATLAB algorithm. Photostimulation of intramembrane Ziapin2 causes a transient V hyperpolarization followed by a delayed depolarization and action potential firing. The observed initial electrical modulation nicely correlates with changes in Ca dynamics and contraction rate. This work represents the proof of principle that Ziapin2 can modulate electrical activity and contractility in hiPSC-CMs, opening up a future development in cardiac physiology.

Optical modulation of excitation-contraction coupling in human-induced pluripotent stem cell-derived cardiomyocytes.

Non-genetic photostimulation, which allows for control over cellular activity via the use of cell-targeting phototransducers, is widely used nowadays to study and modulate/restore biological functions. This approach relies on non-covalent interactions between the phototransducer and the cell membrane, thus implying that cell conditions and membrane status can dictate the effectiveness of the method. For instance, although immortalized cell lines are traditionally used in photostimulation experiments, it has been demonstrated that the number of passages they undergo is correlated to the worsening of cell conditions. In principle, this could impact cell responsivity against exogenous stressors, including photostimulation. However, these aspects have usually been neglected in previous experiments. In this work, we investigated whether cell passages could affect membrane properties (such as polarity and fluidity). We applied optical spectroscopy and electrophysiological measurements in two different biological models: (i) an epithelial immortalized cell line (HEK-293T cells) and (ii) liposomes. Different numbers of cell passages were compared to a different morphology in the liposome membrane. We demonstrated that cell membranes show a significant decrease in ordered domains upon increasing the passage number. Furthermore, we observed that cell responsivity against external stressors is markedly different between aged and non-aged cells. Firstly, we noted that the thermal-disordering effect that is usually observed in membranes is more evident in aged cells than in non-aged ones. We then set up a photostimulation experiment by using a membrane-targeted azobenzene as a phototransducer (Ziapin2). As an example of a functional consequence of such a condition, we showed that the rate of isomerization of an intramembrane molecular transducer is significantly impaired in aged cells. The reduction in the photoisomerization rate translates in cells with a sustained reduction of the Ziapin2-related hyperpolarization of the membrane potential and an overall increase in the molecule fluorescence. Overall, our results suggest that membrane stimulation strongly depends on membrane order, highlighting the importance of cell passage during the characterization of the stimulation tools. This study can shine light on the correlation between aging and the development of diseases driven by membrane degradation as well as on the different cell responsivities against external stressors, such as temperature and photostimulation.

Membrane Order Effect on the Photoresponse of an Organic Transducer.

The assembly of supramolecular structures within living systems is an innovative approach for introducing artificial constructs and developing biomaterials capable of influencing and/or regulating the biological responses of living organisms. By integrating chemical, photophysical, morphological, and structural characterizations, it is shown that the cell-driven assembly of 2,6-diphenyl-3,5-dimethyl-dithieno[3,2-b:2',3'-d]thiophene-4,4-dioxide (DTTO) molecules into fibers results in the formation of a "biologically assisted" polymorphic form, hence the term bio-polymorph. Indeed, X-ray diffraction reveals that cell-grown DTTO fibers present a unique molecular packing leading to specific morphological, optical, and electrical properties. Monitoring the process of fiber formation in cells with time-resolved photoluminescence, it is established that cellular machinery is necessary for fiber production and a non-classical nucleation mechanism for their growth is postulated. These biomaterials may have disruptive applications in the stimulation and sense of living cells, but more crucially, the study of their genesis and properties broadens the understanding of life beyond the native components of cells.

Insight on the Intracellular Supramolecular Assembly of DTTO: A Peculiar Example of Cell-Driven Polymorphism.

Mechanosensitive ion channels are present in the plasma membranes of all cells. They play a fundamental role in converting mechanical stimuli into biochemical signals and are involved in several physiological processes such as touch sensation, hearing, and blood pressure regulation. This protein family includes TWIK-related arachidonic acid-stimulated K channel (TRAAK), which is specifically implicated in the maintenance of the resting membrane potential and in the regulation of a variety of important neurobiological functions. Dysregulation of these channels has been linked to various diseases, including blindness, epilepsy, cardiac arrhythmia, and chronic pain. For these reasons, mechanosensitive channels are targets for the treatment of several diseases. Here, we propose a new approach to investigate TRAAK ion channel modulation that is based on nongenetic photostimulation. We employed an amphiphilic azobenzene, named Ziapin2. In the dark, Ziapin2 preferentially dwells in the plasma membrane, causing a thinning of the membrane. Upon light irradiation, an isomerization occurs, breaking the dimers and inducing membrane relaxation. To study the effect of Ziapin2 on the mechanosensitive channels, we expressed human TRAAK (hTRAAK) channels in HEK293T cells. We observed that Ziapin2 insertion in the membrane is able per se to recruit hTRAAK, permitting the exit of K ions outside the cells with a consequent hyperpolarization of the cell membrane. During light stimulation, membrane relaxation induces hTRAAK closure, generating a consistent and compensatory depolarization. These results add information to the Ziapin2 mechanism and suggest that membrane deformation can be a tool for the nonselective modulation of mechanosensitive channels.

Modulation of Mechanosensitive Potassium Channels by a Membrane-targeted Nongenetic Photoswitch.

Optical stimulation and control of muscle cell contraction opens up a number of interesting applications in hybrid robotic and medicine. Here we show that recently designed molecular phototransducer can be used to stimulate C2C12 skeletal muscle cells, properly grown to exhibit collective behaviour. C2C12 is a skeletal muscle cell line that does not require animal sacrifice Furthermore, it is an ideal cell model for evaluating the phototransducer pacing ability due to its negligible spontaneous activity. We study the stimulation process and analyse the distribution of responses in multinuclear cells, in particular looking at the consistency between stimulus and contraction. Contractions are detected by using an imaging software for object recognition. We find a deterministic response to light stimuli, yet with a certain distribution of erratic behaviour that is quantified and correlated to light intensity or stimulation frequency. Finally, we compare our optical stimulation with electrical stimulation showing advantages of the optical approach, like the reduced cell stress.

Skeletal muscle cells opto-stimulation by intramembrane molecular transducers.

Measuring the transit time of a cell forced through a bottleneck is one of the most widely used techniques for the study of cell deformability in flow. It in turn provides an accessible and rapid way of obtaining crucial information regarding cell physiology. Many techniques are currently being investigated to reliably retrieve this time, but their translation to diagnostic-oriented devices is often hampered by their complexity, lack of robustness, and the bulky external equipment required. Herein, we demonstrate the benefits of coupling microfluidics with an optical method, like photocells, to measure the transit time. We exploit the femtosecond laser irradiation followed by chemical etching (FLICE) fabrication technique to build a monolithic 3D device capable of detecting cells flowing through a 3D non-deformable constriction which is fully buried in a fused silica substrate. We validated our chip by measuring the transit times of pristine breast cancer cells (MCF-7) and MCF-7 cells treated with Latrunculin A, a drug typically used to increase their deformability. A difference in transit times can be assessed without the need for complex external instrumentation and/or demanding computational efforts. The high throughput (4000-10,000 cells/min), ease of use, and clogging-free operation of our device bring this approach much closer to real scenarios.

Photocell-Based Optofluidic Device for Clogging-Free Cell Transit Time Measurements.

The use of light to control the activity of living cells is a promising approach in cardiac research due to its unparalleled spatio-temporal selectivity and minimal invasiveness. Ziapin2, a newly synthesized azobenzene compound, has recently been reported as an efficient tool for light-driven modulation of excitation-contraction coupling (ECC) in human-induced pluripotent stem cells-derived cardiomyocytes. However, the exact biophysical mechanism of this process remains incompletely understood.

Article	Year
Optical Pacing of Human-Induced Pluripotent Stem Cell-Derived Cardiomyocytes Mediated by a Conjugated Polymer Interface. Advanced healthcare materials\| PubMed ID: 31066237	2019
Neuronal firing modulation by a membrane-targeted photoswitch. Nature nanotechnology\| PubMed ID: 32015505	2020
Membrane Environment Enables Ultrafast Isomerization of Amphiphilic Azobenzene. Advanced science (Weinheim, Baden-Wurttemberg, Germany)\| PubMed ID: 32328424	2020
Shedding Light on Thermally Induced Optocapacitance at the Organic Biointerface. The journal of physical chemistry. B\| PubMed ID: 34524830	2021
Stable and Solution-Processable Cumulenic sp-Carbon Wires: A New Paradigm for Organic Electronics. Advanced materials (Deerfield Beach, Fla.)\| PubMed ID: 35178779	2022
Optical modulation of excitation-contraction coupling in human-induced pluripotent stem cell-derived cardiomyocytes. iScience\| PubMed ID: 36879812	2023
Membrane Order Effect on the Photoresponse of an Organic Transducer. Membranes\| PubMed ID: 37233599	2023
Insight on the Intracellular Supramolecular Assembly of DTTO: A Peculiar Example of Cell-Driven Polymorphism. Advanced materials (Deerfield Beach, Fla.)\| PubMed ID: 37364565	2023
Modulation of Mechanosensitive Potassium Channels by a Membrane-targeted Nongenetic Photoswitch. The journal of physical chemistry. B\| PubMed ID: 37815392	2023
Skeletal muscle cells opto-stimulation by intramembrane molecular transducers. Communications biology\| PubMed ID: 37952040	2023
Photocell-Based Optofluidic Device for Clogging-Free Cell Transit Time Measurements. Biosensors\| PubMed ID: 38667147	2024
Role of stretch-activated channels in light-generated action potentials mediated by an intramembrane molecular photoswitch. Journal of translational medicine\| PubMed ID: 39605022	2024

Vito Vurro

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