single-molecule-fluorescence-visualization-dna-polymerase-dynamics-at

Single-Molecule Fluorescence Visualization of DNA Polymerase Dynamics at G-Quadruplexes

The ability of proteins&#160;involved in eukaryotic DNA replication to&#160;overcome obstacles &#8212; such as protein and DNA ...

University of Wollongong

The  DNA replication machinery has been used as a road map to uncover design rules that enable DNA duplication with high efficiency and fidelity. Although the enzymatic activities of the replicative DNA Pol III are well understood, its dynamics within the replisome are not. Here, we test the accepted view that the Pol III holoenzyme remains stably associated within the replisome. We use in vitro single-molecule assays with fluorescently labeled polymerases to demonstrate that the Pol III* complex (holoenzyme lacking the β sliding clamp), is rapidly exchanged during processive DNA replication. Nevertheless, the replisome is highly resistant to dilution in the absence of Pol III* in solution. We further show similar exchange in live cells containing labeled clamp loader and polymerase. These observations suggest a concentration-dependent exchange mechanism providing a balance between stability and plasticity, facilitating replacement of replisomal components dependent on their availability in the environment.

Single-molecule visualization of fast polymerase turnover in the bacterial replisome.

The replisome, the multiprotein system responsible for genome duplication, is a highly dynamic complex displaying a large number of different enzyme activities. Recently, the  minimal replication reaction has been successfully reconstituted in vitro. This provided an opportunity to uncover the enzymatic activities of many of the components in a eukaryotic system. Their dynamic behavior and interactions in the context of the replisome, however, remain unclear. We use a tethered-bead assay to provide real-time visualization of leading-strand synthesis by the  replisome at the single-molecule level. The minimal reconstituted leading-strand replisome requires 24 proteins, forming the CMG helicase, the Pol ε DNA polymerase, the RFC clamp loader, the PCNA sliding clamp, and the RPA single-stranded DNA binding protein. We observe rates and product lengths similar to those obtained from ensemble biochemical experiments. At the single-molecule level, we probe the behavior of two components of the replication progression complex and characterize their interaction with active leading-strand replisomes. The Minichromosome maintenance protein 10 (Mcm10), an important player in CMG activation, increases the number of productive replication events in our assay. Furthermore, we show that the fork protection complex Mrc1-Tof1-Csm3 (MTC) enhances the rate of the leading-strand replisome threefold. The introduction of periods of fast replication by MTC leads to an average rate enhancement of a factor of 2, similar to observations in cellular studies. We observe that the MTC complex acts in a dynamic fashion with the moving replisome, leading to alternating phases of slow and fast replication.

Single-molecule visualization of  leading-strand synthesis reveals dynamic interaction between MTC and the replisome.

Cells use a suite of specialized enzymes to repair chromosomal double-strand breaks (DSBs). Two recent studies describe how single-molecule fluorescence imaging techniques are used in the direct visualization of some of the key molecular steps involved. De Tullio et al. and Kaniecki et al. watch individual Srs2 helicase molecules disrupt repair intermediates formed by RPA, Rad51, and Rad52 on DNA during homologous recombination.

Resolving the Gordian Knot: Srs2 Strips Intermediates Formed during Homologous Recombination.

The ability to watch single molecules of DNA has revolutionised how we study biological transactions concerning nucleic acids. Many strategies have been developed to manipulate DNA molecules to investigate mechanical properties, dynamics and protein⁻DNA interactions. Imaging methods using small molecules and protein-based probes to visualise DNA have propelled our understanding of complex biochemical reactions involving DNA. This review focuses on summarising some of the methodological developments made to visualise individual DNA molecules and discusses how these probes have been used in single-molecule biophysical assays.

Shining a Spotlight on DNA: Single-Molecule Methods to Visualise DNA.

The RecA protein orchestrates the cellular response to DNA damage via its multiple roles in the bacterial SOS response. Lack of tools that provide unambiguous access to the various RecA states within the cell have prevented understanding of the spatial and temporal changes in RecA structure/function that underlie control of the damage response. Here, we develop a monomeric C-terminal fragment of the λ repressor as a novel fluorescent probe that specifically interacts with RecA filaments on single-stranded DNA (RecA*). Single-molecule imaging techniques in live cells demonstrate that RecA is largely sequestered in storage structures during normal metabolism. Upon DNA damage, the storage structures dissolve and the cytosolic pool of RecA rapidly nucleates to form early SOS-signaling complexes, maturing into DNA-bound RecA bundles at later time points. Both before and after SOS induction, RecA* largely appears at locations distal from replisomes. Upon completion of repair, RecA storage structures reform.

Spatial and temporal organization of RecA in the  DNA-damage response.

Single-stranded DNA-binding proteins (SSBs) support DNA replication by protecting single-stranded DNA from nucleolytic attack, preventing intra-strand pairing events and playing many other regulatory roles within the replisome. Recent developments in single-molecule approaches have led to a revised picture of the replisome that is much more complex in how it retains or recycles protein components. Here, we visualize how an in vitro reconstituted Escherichia coli replisome recruits SSB by relying on two different molecular mechanisms. Not only does it recruit new SSB molecules from solution to coat newly formed single-stranded DNA on the lagging strand, but it also internally recycles SSB from one Okazaki fragment to the next. We show that this internal transfer mechanism is balanced against recruitment from solution in a manner that is concentration dependent. By visualizing SSB dynamics in live cells, we show that both internal transfer and external exchange mechanisms are physiologically relevant.

Recycling of single-stranded DNA-binding protein by the bacterial replisome.

Limited experimental tools are available to study the consequences of collisions between DNA-bound molecular machines. Here, we repurpose a catalytically inactivated Cas9 (dCas9) construct as a generic, novel, targetable protein-DNA roadblock for studying mechanisms underlying enzymatic activities on DNA substrates in vitro. We illustrate the broad utility of this tool by demonstrating replication fork arrest by the specifically bound dCas9-guideRNA complex to arrest viral, bacterial and eukaryotic replication forks in vitro.

Nuclease dead Cas9 is a programmable roadblock for DNA replication.

Structural and biochemical studies have revealed the basic principles of how the replisome duplicates genomic DNA, but little is known about its dynamics during DNA replication. We reconstitute the 34 proteins needed to form the S. cerevisiae replisome and show how changing local concentrations of the key DNA polymerases tunes the ability of the complex to efficiently recycle these proteins or to dynamically exchange them. Particularly, we demonstrate redundancy of the Pol α-primase DNA polymerase activity in replication and show that Pol α-primase and the lagging-strand Pol δ can be re-used within the replisome to support the synthesis of large numbers of Okazaki fragments. This unexpected malleability of the replisome might allow it to deal with barriers and resource challenges during replication of large genomes.

Tunability of DNA Polymerase Stability during Eukaryotic DNA Replication.

Many strategies have been developed to manipulate DNA molecules and investigate protein-DNA interactions with single-molecule resolution. Often, these require long DNA molecules with a length of several 10s of kb that are chemically modified at specific regions. This need has traditionally been met by commercially available DNA from bacteriophage λ. However, λ DNA does not allow for the generation of highly customizable substrates in a straightforward manner, an important factor when developing assays to study complex biochemical reactions. Here we present a generalizable method for the design and production of very long chemically modified DNA substrates derived from a single plasmid. We show the versatility of this design by demonstrating its application in studying DNA replication in vitro. We anticipate this strategy will be broadly useful in producing a range of long chemically modified DNA molecules required for a diverse range of single-molecule approaches.

Design of customizable long linear DNA substrates with controlled end modifications for single-molecule studies.

Recent studies of bacterial DNA replication have led to a picture of the replisome as an entity that freely exchanges DNA polymerases and displays intermittent coupling between the helicase and polymerase(s). Challenging the textbook model of the polymerase holoenzyme acting as a stable complex coordinating the replisome, these observations suggest a role of the helicase as the central organizing hub. We show here that the molecular origin of this newly found plasticity lies in the 500-fold increase in strength of the interaction between the polymerase holoenzyme and the replicative helicase upon association of the primase with the replisome. By combining in vitro ensemble-averaged and single-molecule assays, we demonstrate that this conformational switch operates during replication and promotes recruitment of multiple holoenzymes at the fork. Our observations provide a molecular mechanism for polymerase exchange and offer a revised model for the replication reaction that emphasizes its stochasticity.

A Primase-Induced Conformational Switch Controls the Stability of the Bacterial Replisome.

Efficient and faithful replication of the genome is essential to maintain genome stability. Replication is carried out by a multiprotein complex called the replisome, which encounters numerous obstacles to its progression. Failure to bypass these obstacles results in genome instability and may facilitate errors leading to disease. Cells use accessory helicases that help the replisome bypass difficult barriers. All eukaryotes contain the accessory helicase Pif1, which tracks in a 5'-3' direction on single-stranded DNA and plays a role in genome maintenance processes. Here, we reveal a previously unknown role for Pif1 in replication barrier bypass. We use an in vitro reconstituted  replisome to demonstrate that Pif1 enables the replisome to bypass an inactive (i.e., dead) Cas9 (dCas9) R-loop barrier. Interestingly, dCas9 R-loops targeted to either strand are bypassed with similar efficiency. Furthermore, we employed a single-molecule fluorescence visualization technique to show that Pif1 facilitates this bypass by enabling the simultaneous removal of the dCas9 protein and the R-loop. We propose that Pif1 is a general displacement helicase for replication bypass of both R-loops and protein blocks.

Replisome bypass of a protein-based R-loop block by Pif1.

Single-molecule imaging studies using long linear DNA substrates have revealed unanticipated insights into the dynamics of multi-protein systems. The use of long DNA substrates allows for the study of protein-DNA interactions with observation of the movement and behavior of proteins over distances accessible by fluorescence microscopy. Generalized methods can be exploited to generate and optimize a variety of linear DNA substrates with plasmid DNA as a simple starting point using standard biochemical techniques. Here, we present protocols to produce high-quality plasmid-based 36-kb linear DNA substrates that support DNA replication by the Escherichia coli replisome and that contain chemical lesions at well-defined positions. These substrates can be used to visualize replisome-lesion encounters at the single-molecule level, providing mechanistic details of replisome stalling and dynamics occurring during replication rescue and restart.

Production of long linear DNA substrates with site-specific chemical lesions for single-molecule replisome studies.

The paradigm of cellular systems as deterministic machines has long guided our understanding of biology. Advancements in technology and methodology, however, have revealed a world of stochasticity, challenging the notion of determinism. Here, we explore the stochastic behavior of multi-protein complexes, using the DNA replication system (replisome) as a prime example. The faithful and timely copying of DNA depends on the simultaneous action of a large set of enzymes and scaffolding factors. This fundamental cellular process is underpinned by dynamic protein-nucleic acid assemblies that must transition between distinct conformations and compositional states. Traditionally viewed as a well-orchestrated molecular machine, recent experimental evidence has unveiled significant variability and heterogeneity in the replication process. In this review, we discuss recent advances in single-molecule approaches and single-particle cryo-EM, which have provided insights into the dynamic processes of DNA replication. We comment on the new challenges faced by structural biologists and biophysicists as they attempt to describe the dynamic cascade of events leading to replisome assembly, activation, and progression. The fundamental principles uncovered and yet to be discovered through the study of DNA replication will inform on similar operating principles for other multi-protein complexes.

Article	Year
Single-molecule visualization of fast polymerase turnover in the bacterial replisome. eLife\| PubMed ID: 28432790	2017
Single-molecule visualization of leading-strand synthesis reveals dynamic interaction between MTC and the replisome. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America\| PubMed ID: 28923950	2017
Resolving the Gordian Knot: Srs2 Strips Intermediates Formed during Homologous Recombination. Trends in biochemical sciences\| PubMed ID: 29290471	2018
Shining a Spotlight on DNA: Single-Molecule Methods to Visualise DNA. Molecules (Basel, Switzerland)\| PubMed ID: 30704053	2019
Spatial and temporal organization of RecA in the DNA-damage response. eLife\| PubMed ID: 30717823	2019
Recycling of single-stranded DNA-binding protein by the bacterial replisome. Nucleic acids research\| PubMed ID: 30767010	2019
Nuclease dead Cas9 is a programmable roadblock for DNA replication. Scientific reports\| PubMed ID: 31527759	2019
Tunability of DNA Polymerase Stability during Eukaryotic DNA Replication. Molecular cell\| PubMed ID: 31704183	2020
Design of customizable long linear DNA substrates with controlled end modifications for single-molecule studies. Analytical biochemistry\| PubMed ID: 31870680	2020
A Primase-Induced Conformational Switch Controls the Stability of the Bacterial Replisome. Molecular cell\| PubMed ID: 32464091	2020
Replisome bypass of a protein-based R-loop block by Pif1. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America\| PubMed ID: 33199603	2020
Production of long linear DNA substrates with site-specific chemical lesions for single-molecule replisome studies. Methods in enzymology\| PubMed ID: 35934481	2022
Embracing Heterogeneity: Challenging the Paradigm of Replisomes as Deterministic Machines. Chemical reviews\| PubMed ID: 37971892	2023

Jacob S. Lewis

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