establishing-vitro-models-dorsal-root-ganglia-culture-complementary

Establishing <em>In Vitro</em> Models of Dorsal Root Ganglia Culture: Complementary Approaches for Investigating Cancer-Nerve Crosstalk

The contribution of the nervous system to the tumor microenvironment and the importance of neural invasion as a route for cancer dissemination are being ...

Queen's University

The E2A gene encodes DNA-binding transcription factors, called E12 and E47, involved in cell specification and maturation. E2A is also involved in a chromosomal translocation that leads to the expression of an oncogenic transcription factor called E2A-PBX1 in cases of acute leukemia. In the work described here, we elucidate the interaction between E2A-PBX1 and transcriptional co-activators. We confirm that the E2A portion can interact with CBP and PCAF and map required elements on E2A and CBP. On CBP, the interaction involves the KIX domain, a well characterized domain that mediates interactions with several other oncogenic transcription factors. On E2A, the interaction with CBP requires conserved alpha-helical domains that reside within activation domains 1 and 2 (AD1 and AD2, respectively). Using purified, recombinant proteins, we show that the E2A-CBP interaction is direct. Notwithstanding the previously demonstrated ability of AD1 and AD2 to function independently, some of our findings suggest functional cooperativity between these two domains. Finally, we show that the CBP/p300-interactive helical domains of E2A are important in the induction of proliferation in cultured primary bone marrow cells retrovirally transduced with E2A-PBX1. Our findings suggest that some aspects of E2A-PBX1 oncogenesis involve a direct interaction with the KIX domain of CBP/p300.

E2A-PBX1 interacts directly with the KIX domain of CBP/p300 in the induction of proliferation in primary hematopoietic cells.

In roughly 5% of cases of acute lymphoblastic leukemia, a chromosomal translocation leads to expression of the oncogenic protein E2A-PBX1. The N-terminal portion of E2A-PBX1, encoded by the E2A gene, is identical in sequence to the corresponding portion of the E proteins E12/E47 and includes transcriptional activation domains. The C terminus consists of most of the HOX interacting transcription factor PBX1, including its DNA-binding homeodomain. Structure-function correlative experiments have suggested that oncogenesis by E2A-PBX1 requires an activation domain, called AD1, at the extreme N terminus. We recently demonstrated that a potentially helical portion of AD1 interacts directly with the transcriptional coactivator protein cyclic AMP response element-binding protein (CBP) and that this interaction is essential in the immortalization of primary bone marrow cells in tissue culture. Here we show that a conserved LXXLL motif within AD1 is required in the interaction between E2A-PBX1 and the KIX domain of CBP. We show by circular dichroism spectroscopy that the LXXLL-containing portion of AD1 undergoes a helical transition upon interacting with the KIX domain and that amino acid substitutions that prevent helix formation prevent both the KIX interaction and cell immortalization by E2A-PBX1. Perhaps most strikingly, substitution of a single, conserved leucine residue (L20) within the LXXLL motif impairs leukemia induction in mice after transplantation with E2A-PBX1-expressing bone marrow. The KIX domain of CBP mediates well-characterized interactions with several transcription factors of relevance to leukemia induction. Circumstantial evidence suggests that the side chain of L20 might interact with a deep hydrophobic pocket in the KIX domain. Therefore, our results serve to identify a potential new drug target.

Critical role for a single leucine residue in leukemia induction by E2A-PBX1.

E-proteins are basic helix-loop-helix transcription factors that function in cell type specification. The gene E2A encodes two E-proteins, E12 and E47, which are required in B-lymphopoiesis. E2A proteins can interact directly with the transcriptional co-activators and lysine acetyltranferases (KATs) CBP, p300 and PCAF to induce target gene transcription. Prior investigations have shown that the E2A-encoded isoform E2-5 is acetylated by CBP, p300 or PCAF in vitro or in vivo. However, E2-5 lacks the important N-terminal activation domain AD1. Furthermore, the acetylated residues in E-proteins have not been mapped, and the functional consequences of acetylation are largely unknown. Here, we use mutagenesis to show that a lysine residue at position 34 within AD1 of E12/E47 is acetylated by CBP/p300 and PCAF. Lys34 lies adjacent to a conserved helical LXXLL motif that interacts directly with the KIX domain of CBP/p300. We show that acetylation at Lys34 increases the affinity of AD1 for the KIX domain and enhances AD1-driven transcriptional induction. Our results illustrate for the first time that AD1 can both recruit, and be acetylated by, KATs and that KAT recruitment may promote transcriptional induction in part through acetylation of AD1 itself.

Mapping acetylation sites in E2A identifies a conserved lysine residue in activation domain 1 that promotes CBP/p300 recruitment and transcriptional activation.

The E2A gene encodes the E-protein transcription factors E12 and E47 that play critical roles in B-lymphopoiesis. A somatic chromosomal translocation detectable in 5% of cases of acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL) involves E2A and results in expression of the oncogenic transcription factor E2A-PBX1. CREB binding protein (CBP) and its close paralog p300 are transcriptional co-activators with intrinsic histone acetyltransferase (HAT) activity. We and others have shown that direct binding of an N-terminal transcriptional activation domain present in E12/E47 and E2A-PBX1 to the KIX domain of CBP/p300 contributes to E2A protein function. In the current work we show for the first time that the catalytic HAT activity of CBP/p300 is increased in the presence of residues 1-483 of E2A (i.e., the portion present in E2A-PBX1). The addition of purified, recombinant E2A protein to in vitro assays results in a two-fold augmentation of CBP/p300 HAT activity, whereas in vivo assays show a ten-fold augmentation of HAT-dependent transcriptional induction and a five-fold augmentation of acetylation of reporter plasmid-associated histone by CBP in response to co-transfected E2A. Our results indicate that the HAT-enhancing effect is independent of the well-documented E2A-CBP interaction involving the KIX domain and suggest a role for direct, perhaps low affinity binding of E2A to a portion of CBP that includes the HAT domain and flanking elements. Our findings add to a growing body of literature indicating that interactions between CBP/p300 and transcription factors can function in a specific manner to modulate HAT catalytic activity.

E2A proteins enhance the histone acetyltransferase activity of the transcriptional co-activators CBP and p300.

The REarranged during Transfection (RET) gene encodes a receptor tyrosine kinase required for maturation of the enteric nervous system. RET sequence variants occur in the congenital abnormality Hirschsprung disease (HSCR), characterized by absence of ganglia in the intestinal tract. Although HSCR-RET variants are predicted to inactivate RET, the molecular mechanisms of these events are not well characterized. Using structure-based models of RET, we predicted the molecular consequences of 23 HSCR-associated missense variants and how they lead to receptor dysfunction. We validated our predictions in biochemical and cell-based assays to explore mutational effects on RET protein functions. We found a minority of HSCR-RET variants abrogated RET kinase function, while the remaining mutants were phosphorylated and transduced intracellular signals. HSCR-RET sequence variants also impacted on maturation, stability, and degradation of RET proteins. We showed that each variant conferred a unique combination of effects that together impaired RET protein activity. However, all tested variants impaired RET-mediated cellular functions, including cell transformation and migration. Our data indicate that the molecular mechanisms of impaired RET function in HSCR are highly variable. Although a subset of variants cause loss of RET kinase activity and downstream signaling, enzymatic inactivation is not the sole mechanism at play in HSCR.

Multiple functional effects of RET kinase domain sequence variants in Hirschsprung disease.

RET encodes a receptor tyrosine kinase that is essential for spermatogenesis, development of the sensory, sympathetic, parasympathetic, and enteric nervous systems and the kidneys, as well as for maintenance of adult midbrain dopaminergic neurons. RET is alternatively spliced to encode multiple isoforms that differ in their C-terminal amino acids. The RET9 and RET51 isoforms display unique levels of autophosphorylation and have differential interactions with adaptor proteins. They induce distinct gene expression patterns, promote different levels of cell differentiation and transformation, and play unique roles in development. Here we present a comprehensive study of the subcellular localization and trafficking of RET isoforms. We show that immature RET9 accumulates intracellularly in the Golgi, whereas RET51 is efficiently matured and present in relatively higher amounts on the plasma membrane. RET51 is internalized faster after ligand binding and undergoes recycling back to the plasma membrane. This differential trafficking of RET isoforms produces a more rapid and longer duration of signaling through the extracellular-signal regulated kinase/mitogen-activated protein kinase pathway downstream of RET51 relative to RET9. Together these differences in trafficking properties contribute to some of the functional differences previously observed between RET9 and RET51 and establish the important role of intracellular trafficking in modulating and maintaining RET signaling.

Alternative splicing results in RET isoforms with distinct trafficking properties.

The RET receptor tyrosine kinase is implicated in normal development and cancer. RET is expressed as two isoforms, RET9 and RET51, with unique C-terminal tail sequences that recruit distinct protein complexes to mediate signals. Upon activation, RET isoforms are internalized with distinct kinetics, suggesting differences in regulation. Here, we demonstrate that RET9 and RET51 differ in their abilities to recruit E3 ubiquitin ligases to their unique C-termini. RET51, but not RET9, interacts with, and is ubiquitylated by CBL, which is recruited through interactions with the GRB2 adaptor protein. RET51 internalization was not affected by CBL knockout but was delayed in GRB2-depleted cells. In contrast, RET9 ubiquitylation requires phosphorylation-dependent changes in accessibility of key RET9 C-terminal binding motifs that facilitate interactions with multiple adaptor proteins, including GRB10 and SHANK2, to recruit the NEDD4 ubiquitin ligase. We showed that NEDD4-mediated ubiquitylation is required for RET9 localization to clathrin-coated pits and subsequent internalization. Our data establish differences in the mechanisms of RET9 and RET51 ubiquitylation and internalization that may influence the strength and duration of RET isoform signals and cellular outputs.This article has an associated First Person interview with the first authors of the paper.

Differential recruitment of E3 ubiquitin ligase complexes regulates RET isoform internalization.

The RET receptor tyrosine kinase plays important roles in regulating cellular proliferation, migration, and survival in the normal development of neural crest derived tissues. However, aberrant activation of RET, through oncogenic mutations or overexpression, can contribute to tumourigenesis, regional invasion, and metastasis of several human cancers. RET is expressed as two main isoforms with unique C-terminal sequences that differ in protein interactions and subcellular trafficking in response to RET activation, and which also have distinct oncogenic potentials. The long isoform, termed RET51, is internalized from the membrane in response to stimulation by its ligand, GDNF, but is known to recycle back to the surface via RAB11 endosomes. However, the mechanisms regulating this process and its cellular effects have not been defined. Here, we show that recycling of RET51 requires a multicomponent complex that includes the endosomal-sorting protein GGA3, which mediates GDNF-dependent slow recycling of RET51 receptors to the plasma membrane. Our data show that the GRB2 adapter associates with RET51 through interactions with its C-terminal sequences, facilitating recruitment of active ARF6 and GGA3 interaction, and that depletion of GGA3 or ARF6 reduced RET51 recycling. Further, GGA3 knockdown accelerated RET51 degradation and also attenuated RET-mediated AKT activation. Finally, we showed that recycling of RET51 to the cell surface through association with GGA3 and ARF6 contributes to RET51-dependent cell motility, migration, and invasion. Our data establish RET recycling as a mechanism coordinating location and duration of RET signals in order to direct cell movement and invasion.

GGA3-mediated recycling of the RET receptor tyrosine kinase contributes to cell migration and invasion.

Increased expression of REarranged during Transfection (RET) kinase is reported in 10-20 % of lung adenocarcinomas (LUAD) and is associated with metastasis and reduced survival. Ezrin is a scaffold protein that promotes protein interactions with the actin cytoskeleton to regulate cell migration and is also associated with invasion and metastasis in cancers. RET isoforms interact with unique combinations of scaffold proteins to promote distinct signaling pathways. We hypothesized that RET isoforms associate distinctly with Ezrin for cytoskeletal reorganization and LUAD cell migration processes.

RET isoform-specific interaction with scaffold protein Ezrin promotes cell migration and chemotaxis in lung adenocarcinoma.

Pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) is a therapeutically challenging disease with poor survival rates, owing to late diagnosis and early dissemination. These tumors frequently undergo perineural invasion, spreading along nerves regionally and to distant sites. The RET receptor tyrosine kinase is implicated in increased aggressiveness, local invasion, and metastasis in multiple cancers, including PDAC. RET mediates directional motility and invasion towards sources of its neurotrophic factor ligands, suggesting that it may enhance perineural invasion of tumor cells towards nerves. RET is expressed as two main isoforms, RET9 and RET51, which differ in their protein interactions and oncogenic potentials, however, the contributions of RET isoforms to neural invasion have not been investigated. In this study, we generated total RET and isoform-specific knockdown PDAC cell lines and assessed the contributions of RET isoforms to PDAC invasive spread. Our data show that RET activity induces cell polarization and actin remodeling through activation of CDC42 and RHOA GTPases to promote directional motility in PDAC cells. Further, we show that RET interacts with the adaptor protein TKS5 to induce invadopodia formation, enhance matrix degradation and promote tumor cell invasion through a SRC and GRB2-dependent mechanism. Finally, we show that RET51 is the predominant isoform contributing to these RET-mediated invasive processes in PDAC. Together, our work suggests that RET expression in pancreatic cancers may enhance tumor aggressiveness by promoting perineural invasion, and that RET expression may be a valuable marker of invasiveness, and a potential therapeutic target in the treatment of these cancers.

RET isoforms contribute differentially to invasive processes in pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma.

Internalization from the cell membrane and endosomal trafficking of receptor tyrosine kinases (RTK) are important regulators of signaling in normal cells that can frequently be disrupted in cancer. The adrenal tumour pheochromocytoma (PCC) can be caused by activating mutations of the RET receptor tyrosine kinase, or inactivation of TMEM127, a transmembrane tumour suppressor implicated in trafficking of endosomal cargos. However, the role of aberrant receptor trafficking in PCC is not well understood. Here, we show that loss of TMEM127 causes wildtype RET protein accumulation on the cell surface, where increased receptor density facilitates constitutive ligand-independent activity and downstream signaling, driving cell proliferation. Loss of TMEM127 altered normal cell membrane organization and recruitment and stabilization of membrane protein complexes, impaired assembly, and maturation of clathrin coated pits, and reduced internalization and degradation of cell surface RET. In addition to RTKs, TMEM127 depletion also promoted surface accumulation of several other transmembrane proteins, suggesting it may cause global defects in surface protein activity and function. Together, our data identify TMEM127 as an important determinant of membrane organization including membrane protein diffusability, and protein complex assembly and provide a novel paradigm for oncogenesis in PCC where altered membrane dynamics promotes cell surface accumulation and constitutive activity of growth factor receptors to drive aberrant signaling and promote transformation.

Loss of Tumour Suppressor TMEM127 Drives RET-mediated Transformation Through Disrupted Membrane Dynamics.

Internalization from the cell membrane and endosomal trafficking of receptor tyrosine kinases (RTKs) are important regulators of signaling in normal cells that can frequently be disrupted in cancer. The adrenal tumor pheochromocytoma (PCC) can be caused by activating mutations of the rearranged during transfection (RET) receptor tyrosine kinase, or inactivation of TMEM127, a transmembrane tumor suppressor implicated in trafficking of endosomal cargos. However, the role of aberrant receptor trafficking in PCC is not well understood. Here, we show that loss of TMEM127 causes wildtype RET protein accumulation on the cell surface, where increased receptor density facilitates constitutive ligand-independent activity and downstream signaling, driving cell proliferation. Loss of TMEM127 altered normal cell membrane organization and recruitment and stabilization of membrane protein complexes, impaired assembly, and maturation of clathrin-coated pits, and reduced internalization and degradation of cell surface RET. In addition to RTKs, TMEM127 depletion also promoted surface accumulation of several other transmembrane proteins, suggesting it may cause global defects in surface protein activity and function. Together, our data identify TMEM127 as an important determinant of membrane organization including membrane protein diffusability and protein complex assembly and provide a novel paradigm for oncogenesis in PCC where altered membrane dynamics promotes cell surface accumulation and constitutive activity of growth factor receptors to drive aberrant signaling and promote transformation.

Article	Year
E2A-PBX1 interacts directly with the KIX domain of CBP/p300 in the induction of proliferation in primary hematopoietic cells. The Journal of biological chemistry\| PubMed ID: 15507449	2004
Critical role for a single leucine residue in leukemia induction by E2A-PBX1. Molecular and cellular biology\| PubMed ID: 16914730	2006
Mapping acetylation sites in E2A identifies a conserved lysine residue in activation domain 1 that promotes CBP/p300 recruitment and transcriptional activation. Biochimica et biophysica acta\| PubMed ID: 22207202	2012
E2A proteins enhance the histone acetyltransferase activity of the transcriptional co-activators CBP and p300. Biochimica et biophysica acta\| PubMed ID: 22387215	2012
Multiple functional effects of RET kinase domain sequence variants in Hirschsprung disease. Human mutation\| PubMed ID: 22837065	2013
Alternative splicing results in RET isoforms with distinct trafficking properties. Molecular biology of the cell\| PubMed ID: 22875993	2012
Differential recruitment of E3 ubiquitin ligase complexes regulates RET isoform internalization. Journal of cell science\| PubMed ID: 28794017	2017
GGA3-mediated recycling of the RET receptor tyrosine kinase contributes to cell migration and invasion. Oncogene\| PubMed ID: 31645646	2020
RET isoform-specific interaction with scaffold protein Ezrin promotes cell migration and chemotaxis in lung adenocarcinoma. Lung cancer (Amsterdam, Netherlands)\| PubMed ID: 32146264	2020
RET isoforms contribute differentially to invasive processes in pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma. Oncogene\| PubMed ID: 32884116	2020
Loss of Tumour Suppressor TMEM127 Drives RET-mediated Transformation Through Disrupted Membrane Dynamics. bioRxiv : the preprint server for biology\| PubMed ID: 37425958	2024
Loss of tumor suppressor TMEM127 drives RET-mediated transformation through disrupted membrane dynamics. eLife\| PubMed ID: 38687678	2024

Brandy D. Hyndman

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