isolated-axoplasm-from-squid-pathogenic-mechanisms-amyotrophic

Isolated Axoplasm from Squid and Pathogenic Mechanisms in Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis

The squid giant axon is an experimental model that has been instrumental in providing answers to many fundamental questions in cell biology, including the ...

MARINE BIOLOGICAL LABORATORY

Massachusetts General Hospital/Harvard Medical School

Appropriate functionality of nodes of Ranvier, presynaptic terminals, and other axonal subdomains depends on efficient and timely delivery of proteins synthesized and packaged into membrane-bound organelles (MBOs) within the neuronal cell body. MBOs are transported and delivered to their final sites of utilization within axons by a cellular process known as fast axonal transport (FAT). Conventional kinesin, the most abundant multisubunit motor protein expressed in mature neurons, is responsible for FAT of a large variety of MBOs and plays a major role in the maintenance of appropriate axonal connectivity. Consistent with the variety and large number of discrete subdomains within axons, experimental evidence revealed the identity of several protein kinases that modulate specific functional activities of conventional kinesin. Thus, methods for the analysis of kinase activity and conventional kinesin phosphorylation facilitate the study of FAT regulation in health and disease conditions. Axonal degeneration, abnormal patterns of protein phosphorylation, and deficits in FAT represent early pathological features characteristic of neurological diseases caused by unrelated neuropathogenic proteins. Interestingly, some of these proteins were shown to produce deficits in FAT by modulating the activity of specific protein kinases involved in conventional kinesin phosphorylation. However, experimental systems that facilitate an evaluation of molecular events within axons remain scarce. Using the isolated squid axoplasm preparation, we describe methods for evaluating axon-autonomous effects of neuropathogenic proteins on the activity of protein kinases. Protocols are also provided to evaluate the effect of such proteins on the phosphorylation of endogenous axonal substrates, including conventional kinesin and neurofilaments.

Biochemical analysis of axon-specific phosphorylation events using isolated squid axoplasms.

The giant axon of the squid provides a unique cell biological model for analyzing the biochemistry and cell biology of the axon. These axons may exceed 500 μm in diameter and can be readily dissected. Once the surrounding small axons and connective tissue are removed, the axoplasm can be extruded as an intact cylinder of isolated cytoplasm. This isolated axoplasm is morphologically indistinguishable from the intact axon, but without permeability barriers. Fast axonal transport will continue for more than 4 h after extrusion and can be visualized in real time. By perfusing defined concentrations of proteins and/or reagents into the axoplasm, this preparation represents a powerful model for study of intracellular trafficking and its underlying molecular mechanisms.

Fast axonal transport in isolated axoplasm from the squid giant axon.

Sensory neuropathies are the most common neurological complication of HIV. Of these, distal sensory polyneuropathy (DSP) is directly caused by HIV infection and characterized by length-dependent axonal degeneration of dorsal root ganglion (DRG) neurons. Mechanisms for axonal degeneration in DSP remain unclear, but recent experiments revealed that the HIV glycoprotein gp120 is internalized and localized within axons of DRG neurons. Based on these findings, we investigated whether intra-axonal gp120 might impair fast axonal transport (FAT), a cellular process critical for appropriate maintenance of the axonal compartment. Significantly, we found that gp120 severely impaired both anterograde and retrograde FAT. Providing a mechanistic basis for these effects, pharmacological experiments revealed an involvement of various phosphotransferases in this toxic effect, including members of mitogen-activated protein kinase pathways (Tak-1, p38, and c-Jun N-terminal Kinase (JNK)), inhibitor of kappa-B-kinase 2 (IKK2), and PP1. Biochemical experiments and axonal outgrowth assays in cell lines and primary cultures extended these findings. Impairments in neurite outgrowth in DRG neurons by gp120 were rescued using a Tak-1 inhibitor, implicating a Tak-1 mitogen-activated protein kinase pathway in gp120 neurotoxicity. Taken together, these observations indicate that kinase-based impairments in FAT represent a novel mechanism underlying gp120 neurotoxicity consistent with the dying-back degeneration seen in DSP. Targeting gp120-based impairments in FAT with specific kinase inhibitors might provide a novel therapeutic strategy to prevent axonal degeneration in DSP.

HIV Glycoprotein Gp120 Impairs Fast Axonal Transport by Activating Tak1 Signaling Pathways.

Magnetic fields from neuronal action potentials (APs) pass largely unperturbed through biological tissue, allowing magnetic measurements of AP dynamics to be performed extracellularly or even outside intact organisms. To date, however, magnetic techniques for sensing neuronal activity have either operated at the macroscale with coarse spatial and/or temporal resolution-e.g., magnetic resonance imaging methods and magnetoencephalography-or been restricted to biophysics studies of excised neurons probed with cryogenic or bulky detectors that do not provide single-neuron spatial resolution and are not scalable to functional networks or intact organisms. Here, we show that AP magnetic sensing can be realized with both single-neuron sensitivity and intact organism applicability using optically probed nitrogen-vacancy (NV) quantum defects in diamond, operated under ambient conditions and with the NV diamond sensor in close proximity (∼10 µm) to the biological sample. We demonstrate this method for excised single neurons from marine worm and squid, and then exterior to intact, optically opaque marine worms for extended periods and with no observed adverse effect on the animal. NV diamond magnetometry is noninvasive and label-free and does not cause photodamage. The method provides precise measurement of AP waveforms from individual neurons, as well as magnetic field correlates of the AP conduction velocity, and directly determines the AP propagation direction through the inherent sensitivity of NVs to the associated AP magnetic field vector.

Optical magnetic detection of single-neuron action potentials using quantum defects in diamond.

Mutations in Fused in Sarcoma/Translocated in Liposarcoma (FUS) cause familial forms of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), a neurodegenerative disease characterized by progressive axonal degeneration mainly affecting motor neurons. Evidence from transgenic mouse models suggests mutant forms of FUS exert an unknown gain-of-toxic function in motor neurons, but mechanisms underlying this effect remain unknown. Towards this end, we studied the effect of wild type FUS (FUS WT) and three ALS-linked variants (G230C, R521G and R495X) on fast axonal transport (FAT), a cellular process critical for appropriate maintenance of axonal connectivity. All ALS-FUS variants impaired anterograde and retrograde FAT in squid axoplasm, whereas FUS WT had no effect. Misfolding of mutant FUS is implicated in this process, as the molecular chaperone Hsp110 mitigated these toxic effects. Interestingly, mutant FUS-induced impairment of FAT in squid axoplasm and of axonal outgrowth in mammalian primary motor neurons involved aberrant activation of the p38 MAPK pathway, as also reported for ALS-linked forms of Cu, Zn superoxide dismutase (SOD1). Accordingly, increased levels of active p38 MAPK were detected in post-mortem human ALS-FUS brain tissues. These data provide evidence for a novel gain-of-toxic function for ALS-linked FUS involving p38 MAPK activation.

ALS-linked FUS exerts a gain of toxic function involving aberrant p38 MAPK activation.

Mutations of various genes cause hereditary spastic paraplegia (HSP), a neurological disease involving dying-back degeneration of upper motor neurons. From these, mutations in the SPAST gene encoding the microtubule-severing protein spastin account for most HSP cases. Cumulative genetic and experimental evidence suggests that alterations in various intracellular trafficking events, including fast axonal transport (FAT), may contribute to HSP pathogenesis. However, the mechanisms linking SPAST mutations to such deficits remain largely unknown. Experiments presented here using isolated squid axoplasm reveal inhibition of FAT as a common toxic effect elicited by spastin proteins with different HSP mutations, independent of microtubule-binding or severing activity. Mutant spastin proteins produce this toxic effect only when presented as the tissue-specific M1 isoform, not when presented as the ubiquitously-expressed shorter M87 isoform. Biochemical and pharmacological experiments further indicate that the toxic effects of mutant M1 spastins on FAT involve casein kinase 2 (CK2) activation. In mammalian cells, expression of mutant M1 spastins, but not their mutant M87 counterparts, promotes abnormalities in the distribution of intracellular organelles that are correctable by pharmacological CK2 inhibition. Collectively, these results demonstrate isoform-specific toxic effects of mutant M1 spastin on FAT, and identify CK2 as a critical mediator of these effects.

Mutant spastin proteins promote deficits in axonal transport through an isoform-specific mechanism involving casein kinase 2 activation.

Prion diseases include a number of progressive neuropathies involving conformational changes in cellular prion protein (PrPc) that may be fatal sporadic, familial or infectious. Pathological evidence indicated that neurons affected in prion diseases follow a dying-back pattern of degeneration. However, specific cellular processes affected by PrPc that explain such a pattern have not yet been identified. Results from cell biological and pharmacological experiments in isolated squid axoplasm and primary cultured neurons reveal inhibition of fast axonal transport (FAT) as a novel toxic effect elicited by PrPc. Pharmacological, biochemical and cell biological experiments further indicate this toxic effect involves casein kinase 2 (CK2) activation, providing a molecular basis for the toxic effect of PrPc on FAT. CK2 was found to phosphorylate and inhibit light chain subunits of the major motor protein conventional kinesin. Collectively, these findings suggest CK2 as a novel therapeutic target to prevent the gradual loss of neuronal connectivity that characterizes prion diseases.

Prion protein inhibits fast axonal transport through a mechanism involving casein kinase 2.

Altered synaptic function is thought to play a role in many neurodegenerative diseases, but little is known about the underlying mechanisms for synaptic dysfunction. The squid giant synapse (SGS) is a classical model for studying synaptic electrophysiology and ultrastructure, as well as molecular mechanisms of neurotransmission. Here, we conduct a multidisciplinary study of synaptic actions of misfolded human G85R-SOD1 causing familial amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS). G85R-SOD1, but not WT-SOD1, inhibited synaptic transmission, altered presynaptic ultrastructure, and reduced both the size of the readily releasable pool (RRP) of synaptic vesicles and mobility from the reserved pool (RP) to the RRP. Unexpectedly, intermittent high-frequency stimulation (iHFS) blocked inhibitory effects of G85R-SOD1 on synaptic transmission, suggesting aberrant Ca signaling may underlie G85R-SOD1 toxicity. Ratiometric Ca imaging showed significantly increased presynaptic Ca induced by G85R-SOD1 that preceded synaptic dysfunction. Chelating Ca using EGTA prevented synaptic inhibition by G85R-SOD1, confirming the role of aberrant Ca in mediating G85R-SOD1 toxicity. These results extended earlier findings in mammalian motor neurons and advanced our understanding by providing possible molecular mechanisms and therapeutic targets for synaptic dysfunctions in ALS as well as a unique model for further studies.

Synaptic Actions of Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis-Associated G85R-SOD1 in the Squid Giant Synapse.

Huntington's disease results from expansion of a polyglutamine tract (polyQ) in mutant huntingtin (mHTT) protein, but mechanisms underlying polyQ expansion-mediated toxic gain-of-mHTT function remain elusive. Here, deletion and antibody-based experiments revealed that a proline-rich domain (PRD) adjacent to the polyQ tract is necessary for mHTT to inhibit fast axonal transport and promote axonal pathology in cultured mammalian neurons. Further, polypeptides corresponding to subregions of the PRD sufficed to elicit the toxic effect on fast axonal transport, which was mediated by c-Jun N-terminal kinases (JNKs) and involved PRD binding to one or more SH3-domain containing proteins. Collectively, these data suggested a mechanism whereby polyQ tract expansion in mHTT promotes aberrant PRD exposure and interactions of this domain with SH3 domain-containing proteins including some involved in activation of JNKs. In support, biochemical and immunohistochemical experiments linked aberrant PRD exposure to increased JNK activation in striatal tissues of the zQ175 mouse model and from post-mortem Huntington's disease patients. Together, these findings support a critical role of PRD on mHTT toxicity, suggesting a novel framework for the potential development of therapies aimed to halt or reduce axonal pathology in Huntington's disease.

Toxic effects of mutant huntingtin in axons are mediated by its proline-rich domain.

The amyloid precursor protein (APP) is a key molecular component of Alzheimer's disease (AD) pathogenesis. Proteolytic APP processing generates various cleavage products, including extracellular amyloid beta (Aβ) and the cytoplasmic APP intracellular domain (AICD). Although the role of AICD in the activation of kinase signaling pathways is well established in the context of full-length APP, little is known about intracellular effects of the AICD fragment, particularly within discrete neuronal compartments. Deficits in fast axonal transport (FAT) and axonopathy documented in AD-affected neurons prompted us to evaluate potential axon-autonomous effects of the AICD fragment for the first time. Vesicle motility assays using the isolated squid axoplasm preparation revealed inhibition of FAT by AICD. Biochemical experiments linked this effect to aberrant activation of selected axonal kinases and heightened phosphorylation of the anterograde motor protein conventional kinesin, consistent with precedents showing phosphorylation-dependent regulation of motors proteins powering FAT. Pharmacological inhibitors of these kinases alleviated the AICD inhibitory effect on FAT. Deletion experiments indicated this effect requires a sequence encompassing the NPTY motif in AICD and interacting axonal proteins containing a phosphotyrosine-binding domain. Collectively, these results provide a proof of principle for axon-specific effects of AICD, further suggesting a potential mechanistic framework linking alterations in APP processing, FAT deficits, and axonal pathology in AD.

Axon-Autonomous Effects of the Amyloid Precursor Protein Intracellular Domain (AICD) on Kinase Signaling and Fast Axonal Transport.

GGGGCC (GC) repeat expansion in  is the most common genetic cause of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) and frontotemporal dementia (FTD). Toxicity is thought to result from the accumulation of either repeat RNAs and/or dipeptide repeat proteins (DPRs) translated from repeat-containing transcripts through repeat-associated non-AUG (RAN) translation. To disentangle RNA from DPR toxicity, we mutated a CUG codon predominantly used to initiate DPR translation from all three reading frames. This mutation disrupted DPR synthesis while preserving the expression of repeat-containing RNAs. Despite the accumulation of RNA foci, behavioral deficits and pathological abnormalities, including p-TDP-43 inclusions, STING activation, motor neuron loss, neuroinflammation, and increased plasma neurofilament concentration, were alleviated in  mice. Base editing of the CUG codon also improved molecular phenotypes and survival in patient induced pluripotent stem cell-derived neurons, which highlights the potential of therapeutically targeting DPR production rather than repeat RNAs.

Article	Year
Biochemical analysis of axon-specific phosphorylation events using isolated squid axoplasms. Methods in cell biology\| PubMed ID: 26794515	2016
Fast axonal transport in isolated axoplasm from the squid giant axon. Methods in cell biology\| PubMed ID: 26794522	2016
HIV Glycoprotein Gp120 Impairs Fast Axonal Transport by Activating Tak1 Signaling Pathways. ASN neuro\| PubMed ID: 27872270	2016
Optical magnetic detection of single-neuron action potentials using quantum defects in diamond. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America\| PubMed ID: 27911765	2016
ALS-linked FUS exerts a gain of toxic function involving aberrant p38 MAPK activation. Scientific reports\| PubMed ID: 28273913	2017
Mutant spastin proteins promote deficits in axonal transport through an isoform-specific mechanism involving casein kinase 2 activation. Human molecular genetics\| PubMed ID: 28398512	2017
Prion protein inhibits fast axonal transport through a mechanism involving casein kinase 2. PloS one\| PubMed ID: 29261664	2017
Synaptic Actions of Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis-Associated G85R-SOD1 in the Squid Giant Synapse. eNeuro\| PubMed ID: 32188708	2020
Toxic effects of mutant huntingtin in axons are mediated by its proline-rich domain. Brain : a journal of neurology\| PubMed ID: 37633260	2024
Axon-Autonomous Effects of the Amyloid Precursor Protein Intracellular Domain (AICD) on Kinase Signaling and Fast Axonal Transport. Cells\| PubMed ID: 37830617	2023
Blocking RAN translation without altering repeat RNAs rescues -related ALS and FTD phenotypes. Science (New York, N.Y.)\| PubMed ID: 41643021	2026

Yuyu Song

Biography

JoVE Journal Publications

Other Publications