Name: qualitative analysis for ion identification
Uploaded: 2023-04-30T06:45:24.000Z
Duration: 9 min 9 s
Channel: JoVE

K12 Standards

north-carolina-k-12-science-standard-course-of-study

North Carolina K-12 Science Standard Course of Study

9-12

Chemistry

Matter and its Interactions

PS.Chm.6.2

determining-the-solubility-rules-of-ionic-compounds

Determining the Solubility Rules of Ionic Compounds

1.一般方法
<ol>
	<li>制备的定性分析<ol>
		<li>反应一般都在小试管体积的 5 毫升或更少。</li>
		<li>解决方案需要充分溶解，应相对较稀，通常 ~0.1 M。</li>
		<li>试剂应慢慢地添加落和细致的观察。</li>
		<li>几种常见"测试解决方案"必须建立溶度积规则或识别未知的离子。这些包含已知专门与某些化学物质 （阳离子或阴离子） 发生反应的离子。<ol>
			<li>常见的解决方案包括卡诺3，钡2、 (NH4)2MoO4，HCl，阿格诺3，和氢氧化钠和其他解决方案的需要。</li>
		</ol>
		</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>混合<ol>
		<li>敲击或者在垂直方向旋转试管混合解决方案。使用软木或塞子塞住，防止飞溅的解决方案。</li>
		<li>删除软木或塞子塞住，然后轻轻地加热水浴或很酷的火焰，诱发反应与解决方案。从任何个人在实验室里测试管点。</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>观察和恢复<ol>
		<li>独立的 （非反应溶液） 上清液和沉淀采用离心法。如果更多的沉淀形式添加附加测试离子时，反应是不完整的。继续添加测试离子，直到不再沉淀形式。</li>
		<li>洗沉淀采用离心法和浇注或调迁去上清。添加更多的水，总共三次洗涤重复此过程。</li>
		<li>洗真空过滤大量的沉淀和过滤纸从恢复干的沉淀。</li>
		<li>注意到形成的沉淀以及如颜色、 厚度 （凝胶状、 多云、 精细） 和晶体形成沉淀的属性。</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>安全和废料<ol>
		<li>总是进行定性分析实验时戴安全眼镜。手套也可能需要使用的试剂和产品形成的基础。</li>
		<li>必须密切遵循适当的废物处理方法。当多个反应物组合在一个容器中时，可以形成有害的产品。</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>
2.阴离子分析
<ol>
	<li>识别磷酸、 碳酸盐、 氯、 硫离子;大埔43-，CO32-，-，Cl S2-
	<ol>
		<li>磷酸<ol>
			<li>添加含有磷酸，大埔43-，到另一解决方案含钙离子，Ca2 +的溶液。白色沉淀形成表明 Ca3(PO4)2磷酸钙的形成。</li>
			<li>因为许多金属离子形成不溶性钙产品，更具体的反应是可能的。添加到 Ca3(PO4)2溶解固体和形成 HPO42-H+ （酸）。然后结合 HPO42-钼酸铵，(NH4)2MoO4。一个积极的测试产生黄色沉淀铵磷钼酸盐、 NH4）3宝4(MoO3)12(s)。净离子反应如下: 3 Ca2 +(aq) + 2 大埔43-(aq) → Ca3宝4(s) 
			Ca3宝4(s) + 2 H+(aq) → 3 Ca2 + + 2 HPO42-(aq) 
			HPO4 2-(aq) + 12 (NH4)2MoO4(aq) + 23 H+(aq) → (NH4)3宝4 (MoO3)12(s) + 21 NH4+(aq) + 12 H2O(l) </li>
		</ol>
		</li>
		<li>碳酸盐岩<ol>
			<li>碳酸盐岩盐是一般除了在组 1 和铵阳离子不溶性。向含碳酸盐的解决方案中添加氯化钙、 氯化2，滴几滴。在解决方案中与高碳酸浓度，白色沉淀形式和指示，可能会形成钙磷酸盐、 CaCO3。反应了很多的干扰，包括像磷酸其他阴离子。 Ca2 +(aq) + CO32-(aq) → CaCO3(s) </li>
			<li>H+ （酸） 添加含碳酸盐岩，CO32-解决方案。泡沫的形成表明 CO2，标志着 CO32-作为反应物的存在。碳酸离子的行为作为一个基地在强酸形式二氧化碳气体和水。 CO32-(aq) + H+(aq) → CO2(g) + H2O(l)</li>
		</ol>
		</li>
		<li>氯<ol>
			<li>将硝酸银添加到含氯化物的解决方案。白色沉淀的形成，这表明形成的氯化银(s): Ag+(aq) + Cl-(aq) → AgCl(s)</li>
		</ol>
		</li>
		<li>硫化物<ol>
			<li>含硫的解决方案中添加氯化铜溶液。黑色沉淀物形成表明铜硫化物，CuS 的形成。一般情况下，含有硫离子，S2-，溶液反应与金属离子产生不溶性的金属硫化物。 S2- + Cu2 + → CuS(s)。  溶度积，Ksp值 = 6.3 x 10-36，表明高程度的不溶性的产品。</li>
		</ol>
		</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>
3.阳离子分析
<ol>
	<li>所有碱都金属 （1 组） 和一些碱土都金属 （组 2） 都不能溶解除在特定条件下。</li>
	<li>几乎所有组 3 — — 13 金属被都认为存在硫醚不溶、 碳酸钙、 磷酸盐和氢氧化物。颜色和类型的沉淀会有所不同。<ol>
		<li>在氢氧化钾溶液中铬溶液的地方。将观察绿色沉淀。与氢氧化 + 2 金属的一般反应是如下所示: M2 + + 哦- → M(OH)2(s)</li>
		<li>它是不可能区分大多数金属离子基于溶解度仅有一些明显的例外:<ol>
			<li>银、 汞、 汞22 ++Ag 或铅，铅2 +对氯、 溴或碘化物的加法结果中沉淀的形成。</li>
			<li>另外，锶 Sr2 +沉淀硫酸钡、 Ba2 +、 汞、 汞22 +，或铅，铅2 +结果。</li>
			<li>Ba2 +形成黄色固体在 CrO42-，巴克罗4(s)。这是使用油基涂料，俗称"黄钡"色素。</li>
		</ol>
		</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>有限的不溶性的金属离子允许其它定性的测试来标识每个金属。虽然某种形式沉淀，别人接受唯一的颜色变化在螯合离子或分子。阳离子标识包括镍、 铁、 铝和锌;Ni2 +、 Fe3 +、 Al3 +，锌2 +。<ol>
		<li>丁二酮肟 (H2dmg) 形成玫瑰红色沉淀镍 (H2dmg) 在添加镍 (II): Ni2 +(aq) + 2 H2dmg(aq) → Ni(Hdmg)2(s) + 2 H+(aq) </li>
		<li>铁 (III) 添加硫氰酸根离子，SCN- ，形成血红色 [FeNCS]2 +] 复杂: Fe3 +(aq) + SCN-(aq) → [FeNCS]2 +(aq)</li>
		<li>铝离子<ol>
			<li>结合邻苯二酚紫在 ph 值 6 乙酸铵缓冲溶液，形成蓝色溶液中铝 (III)。</li>
			<li>铝 (III) 也被沉淀在形成凝胶状白色 al （oh)3(s)复合的基础薄弱。加入更多基地引起 [al （oh)4] 到窗体的明确和无色化合物-(aq)可溶性复杂。</li>
		</ol>
		</li>
		<li>锌离子<ol>
			<li>锌 (II) 添加极少量的基地，形成白色沉淀。然后，添加更多的基地重新溶解沉淀，形成可溶性 [共4]2-复杂。</li>
			<li>添加锌 (II) 亚铁氰化钾，K4[Fe(CN)6]，形成光绿色沉淀 K2锌3[Fe(CN)6]2(s): 3 锌2 +(aq) + 2 K4[Fe(CN)6](aq) → K2锌3[Fe(CN)6]2(s) + 6 K+(aq) </li>
		</ol>
		</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>

此处所示的反应可以用于识别一类的阳离子或阴离子的存在或使用非常专为某些离子。因为两种试剂用于分析，要么试剂可以将通常会检测到使用其他。例如，而不是分析氯使用银离子的存在，可以确定银离子使用氯。通过特定的比色法或沉淀试验沉淀的共同规则的组合可以用于积极标识几乎每个离子，原子或多原子，可用。同时，大部分的这些相同的规则可以建立由反应阴离子和阳离子一起系统地生成一套规则为阳离子和阴离子的溶解度。
定性分析和溶解度与相关的规则是在普通化学实验室共同实验。这是由于，在一定程度上方便、 速度和测试的廉价性质。正是因为这些原因，定性试验也是使用基于域的分析和实验室确诊测试。例如，地质公司可能希望知道径流从矿井中是否存在大量的镍。一个简单的测试，通过加水来 dimethylgloxime 是对镍离子选择性。同样，水质量当局可以使用钡 （或一些其他 2 组金属） 来检测碳酸盐岩中水，因此检测水的硬度的水平。然而，先进的仪器使用，在定量结果需要或多个离子需要确定在非常低的...

确定离子化合物的溶度积的规则

资料来源: 实验室的博士尼尔 · 艾布拉姆斯 — — 美国纽约州立大学环境科学与林业学院
通过定性的分析，可以确定离子化合物的溶解度。定性分析是使用化学属性的分析化学领域的一个分支中的化合物和识别的阳离子或阴离子的反应。而化学的反应依赖于已知的溶度积规则，可以通过确定形成产品确定那些相同的规则。定性的分析不通常是在现代工业化学实验室中，但可以在不需要精密仪器仪表领域很容易使用。定性分析也侧重于理解离子和净离子反应以及数据组织成一个流程图解释意见，并作出明确的结论。
许多金属离子有相似的化学性质，阴离子同行一样。正确识别需要仔细分离和分析，系统地找出目前在溶液中的离子。它是重要的是理解酸碱属性、 离子平衡、 氧化还原反应和 ph 值属性，以确定离子成功。
虽然几乎每个元素和多原子离子定性试验，识别过程通常始于知道"类"的离子进行分析;阳离子或阴离子，元素或多原子，群体或时期、 过渡或主要组。在这个实验中，确定了两种类型的离子，阳离子和阴离子。阳离子包括多原子离子以及。

来源：Neal Abrams 博士实验室 — 纽约州立大学环境科学与林业学院  
离子化合物的溶解度可通过……测定

离子化合物溶解性性质的变化趋势可用于离子溶液的定性分析。当向离子溶液混合物中加入某种化合物时，可能生成多种产物，每种产物具有不同的溶解性。如果其中仅有一种产物不溶于水，则只有该产物会从溶液中析出。通过依次进行反应，可对溶液中的离子进行系统的鉴定与分离。尽管存在多种用于元素分析的分析仪器，但这些技术通常耗时较长，或需要在不同实验室之间转运样品。定性分析技术（例如考察溶解性特征）则是快速、易行的分析预筛方法。本视频将介绍离子化合物的溶解性特性，演示选择性沉淀离子化合物的实验操作，并介绍在工业环境中利用溶解性规律进行定性分析的一些应用。离子化合物由阳离子和阴离子组成。当两种不同的离子化合物之间发生反应时，一种化合物的阳离子会因静电作用被另一种化合物的阴离子吸引，从而形成新的化合物。不参与反应的离子称为旁观离子，在净离子反应中会被省略。当离子化合物溶解时，它们会与溶剂分子发生可逆的相互作用，导致离子解离。如果离子与新反离子之间的相互作用强于该离子与溶剂分子之间的相互作用，则产物更倾向于以固态形式存在。由溶液中生成固态产物的过程称为沉淀，该固体称为沉淀物。通过使离子与不溶性沉淀物发生反应，可以选择性地从溶液中分离出特定离子。为了设计此类反应，可根据溶解性趋势将阳离子和阴离子划分为若干大类。阳离子根据其不溶性反应产物中所共有的阴离子进行分组，阴离子 likewise 根据共有的阳离子进行分组。这些共有离子的溶液可用于检测相应的离子组。当需要分离同一组中的离子时，可在分离出该组离子后，使用特殊试剂或浓溶液诱导选择性反应。这些特殊试剂还可用于确认已分离离子的身份。现在您已了解离子定性分析背后的原理，接下来我们将介绍一种分析溶液中磷酸根的方法，随后是分离金属阳离子混合物的步骤。为了分析溶液中的磷酸盐，首先配制稀释的测试溶液，包括水溶性钙、正钼酸铵以及浓硝酸。然后，取5 mL未知溶液置于试管中。将钙溶液逐滴加入未知溶液中。若生成白色沉淀，可能表明存在磷酸钙或碳酸钙。为验证磷酸根的存在，缓慢向试管中加入硝酸。若沉淀溶解，说明生成了磷酸氢根。若无气泡产生，则表明不存在碳酸根，因为碳酸根会与酸反应生成二氧化碳和水。最后，缓慢将正钼酸铵加入试管中。磷酸铵钼以黄色沉淀的形式生成，表明溶液中存在磷酸盐。首先，按照文本方案中列出的步骤配制稀释的测试溶液。准备四个适用于离心机的试管及管盖。将硝酸锌、硝酸镍、硝酸银和硝酸铁的水溶液混合物放入一个试管中。开始分离时，首先缓慢向混合物中加入稀盐酸，并轻轻摇动。生成的白色沉淀为氯化银。继续加入氯化物溶液，直至不再有新的沉淀生成。通过离心分离液体（上清液）和固体氯化银。将上清液倾入第二个试管中。用蒸馏水洗涤氯化银沉淀三次，每次洗涤液均倾入第二个试管中。接着，向第二个试管中逐滴加入氢氧化钠溶液。此时将生成三种沉淀：白色氢氧化锌、黄色氢氧化铁和绿色氢氧化镍。继续加入氢氧化钠溶液，直至白色固体氢氧化锌溶解，形成可溶性的锌酸根离子。通过离心分离锌溶液与固体镍和铁的化合物，然后将上清液倾入第三个试管中。用蒸馏水洗涤固体三次，每次洗涤液均倾入锌溶液中。缓慢将盐酸加入第三个试管中的锌溶液，直至生成氢氧化锌沉淀，随后沉淀溶解。然后，将六氰合铁酸钾逐滴加入锌溶液中，生成白色沉淀六氰合铁酸锌。接着，在含有固体氢氧化镍和氢氧化铁的试管中，缓慢加入氨水，形成可溶性的蓝色六氨合镍离子。通过离心分离将氢氧化铁固体与镍溶液分开，并将镍溶液倾入第四支试管中。用去离子水洗涤氢氧化铁沉淀三次，并将洗涤液倾入镍溶液中。随后，缓慢向镍溶液中加入二甲基乙二肟，生成红色沉淀二甲基乙二肟镍。向氢氧化铁固体中小心加入浓盐酸，得到氯化铁溶液。为确认铁的存在，加入硫氰酸根离子，生成深红色的硫氰酸合铁阳离子。溶液中离子定性分析操作简便、快速，这使得该技术在环境化学和工业领域得到广泛应用。当水中含有高浓度的金属阳离子（如钙或镁）时，称为硬水。这些金属阳离子可与水中的阴离子（如碳酸根）发生反应，生成 chalky 沉积物，堵塞管道或热水器。可通过向水样中加入碳酸盐溶液来评估水的硬度。出现白色沉淀表明钙含量较高。磷酸盐是许多生命形式所需的重要营养物质，因此被广泛用于工业和园艺肥料中。然而，过量的磷酸盐可能带来危害，尤其是在淡水环境中。可通过加入硝酸和正钼酸铵来检测居民区和商业区废水中的磷酸盐。若产生黄色沉淀，则表明磷酸盐含量较高。您刚刚观看了 JoVE 关于离子溶解度规则的介绍视频。现在，您应该熟悉离子反应的基本原理、溶液定性分析的一些实验步骤，以及利用溶解度进行定性分析的一些应用。感谢观看！

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qualitative analysis for ion identification

Qualitative analysis can be used to identify the ions in an ionic compound and to infer solubility from the products that form. It is a branch of analytical chemistry that uses chemical properties and reactions to determine whether a cation or an anion is present. The same known solubility rules that guide these tests can also be learned by observing the reaction products.

This approach is not usually used in modern industrial chemistry labs, but it is practical in the field because it does not require sophisticated instruments. It also helps students practice ionic reactions and net ionic reactions. Results are organized in a flow chart so observations can be compared and used to reach clear conclusions.

Many cations have similar chemical properties, and many anions do as well. For that reason, the ions must be separated and analyzed carefully. Successful identification also depends on understanding acid-base behavior, ionic equilibria, redox reactions, and pH properties.

Qualitative tests exist for almost every elemental ion and polyatomic ion. The process usually starts by deciding which class of ions is being analyzed, such as cations or anions, elemental or polyatomic ions, and groups or periods. In this experiment, both cations and anions are identified, and the cations include polyatomic ions as well.

Qualitative Analysis for Ion Identification

qualitative-analysis-for-ion-identification

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Preparing and measuring solution concentration are key parts of chemistry. A solution is a homogeneous mixture. It contains solutes, which are present in small amounts, and a solvent, which is present in a large amount. This topic focuses on solid-liquid solutions. In these mixtures, one or more solid solutes dissolve in a liquid solvent. Solutions are used often in chemistry because they help store and handle small amounts of material, support chemical reactions, and make materials with...

determining the density of a solid and liquid

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Measuring Density with Lab Glassware

Density is the mass of a substance divided by its volume. It is often written in units such as g/mL or kg/m3. Because density does not change with the amount of material present, it is an intensive property. To find density, both mass and volume must be measured. A balance is used to measure mass for both solids and liquids. The method for volume depends on the type of sample. Liquids take the shape of their container, so their volume can be measured with glassware such as a graduated...

determining the mass percent composition in an aqueous solution

determining-the-mass-percent-composition-in-an-aqueous-solution

Analyzing Solute Content in Water Solutions

Analyzing solute content in water solutions is an important analytical and forensic technique. In an aqueous solution, water is the solvent. The solvent is the main component. The dissolved minor component is the solute. The solute is dissolved in the solvent to make a solution. Water is the most common solvent in everyday life. It is also the main solvent in nearly all biological systems. In chemistry labs, the solvent may be another liquid, such as acetone, ether, or an alcohol. The solute...

determining the empirical formula

Empirical Formula by Gravimetric Analysis

Gravimetric analysis can be used to determine the empirical formula of a compound. The empirical formula gives the smallest whole-number ratio of elements in a molecular compound. In this experiment, that ratio is found for copper chloride hydrate, Cu x Cl y · nH2O. The method relies on the law of conservation of mass. Because mass is conserved, a reaction can be tracked by measuring changes in mass. This makes gravimetric analysis a simple and accurate way to help determine chemical formulas...

determining the solubility rules of ionic compounds

Qualitative analysis can be used to identify the ions in an ionic compound and to infer solubility from the products that form. It is a branch of analytical chemistry that uses chemical properties and reactions to determine whether a cation or an anion is present. The same known solubility rules that guide these tests can also be learned by observing the reaction products. This approach is not usually used in modern industrial chemistry labs, but it is practical in the field because it does...

using a ph meter

Measuring Acidic and Basic pH

Measuring acidic and basic pH helps describe how a solution behaves. Acids donate protons, or H+ ions, and bases donate hydroxide ions, or OH- ions. When acids and bases are mixed, they can neutralize each other. A neutral substance is neither acidic nor basic. pH is a practical way to compare proton concentration in solutions. The amount of H+ in most solutions is very small, so pH makes the value easier to use. pH was first defined from the reciprocal of proton concentration and was later...

introduction to titration

Acid-Base Titration of Vinegar

Acid-base titration is a common way to measure the concentration of an unknown solution. It is also called volumetric analysis because careful volume measurement is a key part of the method. In this technique, a standard solution is used to react with an analyte whose concentration is not known. Titrations can be grouped by the type of reaction they use. The most common examples are acid-base titrations and redox titrations. During a typical titration, the titrant is placed in a burette and...

ideal gas law

Gas Laws Behind Pressure, Volume, and Heat

Gas laws explain how pressure, volume, temperature, and the amount of gas are related. For most common gases near normal conditions, these relationships are a useful model. They also help connect what happens on the microscopic level with what we can measure in a lab, such as pressure and volume. The history of the ideal gas law began in the 17th century with a key pattern in air. Robert Boyle confirmed that pressure and volume are inversely proportional. This relationship is called Boyle’s...

spectrophotometric determination of an equilibrium constant

spectrophotometric-determination-of-an-equilibrium-constant

Measuring K with Beer’s Law and Color

The equilibrium constant, K, can be measured by tracking color in a chemical equilibrium. For a system with one colored species, spectrophotometry is used to relate absorbance to concentration. The colored component can then be measured directly, while the colorless components are found from the balanced chemical equation. This lab uses the Fe(SCN)2+ system to build a Beer’s law curve from experimental data. That curve is then applied to find the concentration of the colored ion in the...

le ch&#226;telier's principle

Chemical Equilibrium Shifts in a Color Test

Chemical equilibrium shifts are shown with a color test using iron(III) ions and thiocyanate ions. In this reversible reaction, Fe3+ and SCN- combine to form FeSCN2+. The changing color of the solution helps show which side of the equilibrium is favored. The experiment follows Le Châtelier's principle. This principle says that when temperature, pressure, or concentration changes disturb a system at equilibrium, the system responds by counteracting that change. Here, the focus is on...

freezing-point depression to determine an unknown compound

freezing-point-depression-to-determine-an-unknown-compound

Using Freezing Point to Identify an Unknown

Freezing-point depression can help identify an unknown compound. When a solid compound dissolves in a solvent, the freezing point of the solution becomes lower than the freezing point of the pure solvent. This change is linked to the molecular weight of the solute. In this experiment, the unknown compound is dissolved in cyclohexane. The freezing point of the cyclohexane solution is measured, and the freezing point of pure cyclohexane is measured as well. The difference between the two...

determining rate laws and the order of reaction

determining-rate-laws-and-the-order-of-reaction

Measuring Reaction Speed and Rate Law

Chemical reaction speed depends on the rate law and the reaction order. These ideas help describe how reactants change into products over time. The rate of a reaction can be affected by temperature, concentration, and the physical properties of the reactants. The rate law shows the role of each reactant in a reaction. It is written as a rate equation, where A and B are concentrations of different molecular species, m and n are reaction orders, and k is the rate constant. The reaction rate also...

using differential scanning calorimetry to measure changes in enthalpy

using-differential-scanning-calorimetry-to-measure-changes-in-enthalpy

Differential Scanning Calorimetry and Heat Flow

Differential scanning calorimetry, or DSC, is a thermodynamic analysis method that tracks heat flow as temperature changes. It compares a sample material sealed in a pan with an empty reference pan. Both pans are exposed to the same temperature conditions. The instrument records the energy difference needed to keep the two pans at the same temperature. This difference comes from the different heat capacities of the sample and the reference pan. As the temperature changes, the energy absorbed...

coordination chemistry complexes

Ligands and Color in Metal Complexes

Transition metals form coordination complexes with ligands in many everyday materials. These metals appear in vitamin supplements, electroplating baths, pigments in paints, and minerals. In many cases, they are found as cations because they readily oxidize, or lose electrons. Ligands are electron donors that surround the metal center. Their bond to the metal is called a coordinate-covalent bond. This bond is not purely ionic or covalent. It is dynamic, so ligands can exchange and re-coordinate...

general chemistry

通过展示基本的实验室技术, 展示常用的设备, 以及探索化学基础方法论背后的理论, 这一集合有助于为一般化学提供坚实的基础。

Use qualitative analysis to identify cations and anions, organize ion tests in a flow chart, and connect observations to solubility rules.

Qualitative Analysis for Ion Identification | JoVE K12

ohios-learning-standards-and-model-curriculum

Ohio’s Learning Standards and Model Curriculum

Physical Geology

Minerals

criteria-mineral-crystalline-solid-occurs-nature-inorganic-defined

Criteria of a mineral (crystalline solid, occurs in nature, inorganic, defined chemical composition)

Virginia  Standards of Learning

HIgh School

CH.5

CH.5.a

Arizona Science Standards

High School

Physical Science

HS+C.P1

HS+C.P1U1.5

Alabama Course of Study Science

Matter and Its Interactions

9-12.C.1.5.a

9-12.C.1.5.c

new-york-state-science-learning-standards

New York State Science Learning Standards

HS. Structure and Properties of Matter

HS-PS1-10.

HS. Chemical Reactions

HS-PS1-2.

HS-PS1-7.

Earth and Space Sciences

Earth’s Systems

HS-ESS2-2.

Neal Abrams

SUNY College of Environmental Science and Forestry

Overview

Principles of Qualitative Analysis of Ionic Solutions

Phosphate Analysis

Metal Cation Separation

Applications

Summary

Scientific Laws and Theories

Scientific Laws

In science, a law is defined as a concise, verbal or mathematical, statement that summarizes a vast number of experimental observations. ...

The Scientific Method

Chemistry is an empirical science. Scientists often pose questions to understand the chemistry in everyday life and seek answers to these questions. To ...

Classifying Matter by State

Chemistry is the study of matter and the changes it undergoes. Matter is anything that has mass and occupies space. Matter is all around us; the air, ...

Classifying Matter by Composition

Matter: Pure Substances and Mixtures
According to its composition, the matter can be classified into two broad categories &mdash; pure substances and ...

The Atomic Theory of Matter

The earliest recorded discussion of the basic structure of matter comes from ancient Greek philosophers. Leucippus and Democritus argued that all matter ...

Subatomic Particles

Dalton was only partially correct about the particles that make up matter. All matter is composed of atoms, and atoms are composed of three smaller ...

Elements: Chemical Symbols and Isotopes

A chemical symbol is an abbreviation used to indicate an element or an atom of an element. For example, the symbol for mercury is Hg. The same symbol is ...

Use models to explain how the scientific understanding of atomic structure has evolved.

PS.Chm.1.1

Radioactivity and Nuclear Equations

Nuclear chemistry is the study of reactions that involve changes in nuclear structure. The nucleus of an atom is composed of protons and, except for ...

Types of Radioactivity

The most common types of radioactivity are &#945; decay, &#946; decay, &#947; decay, neutron emission, and electron capture.
Alpha (&#945;) decay is the ...

Nuclear Stability

Protons and neutrons, collectively called nucleons, are packed together tightly in a nucleus. With a radius of about 10&#8722;15 meters, a nucleus is ...

Nuclear Binding Energy

The difference between the calculated and experimentally measured masses is known as the mass defect of the atom. In the case of helium-4, the mass defect ...

Radioactive Decay and Radiometric Dating

Radioactivity is a spontaneous disintegration of an unstable nuclide and is a random process, as all the nuclei in the sample do not decay simultaneously. ...

Nuclear Fission

Many heavier elements with smaller binding energies per nucleon can decompose into more stable elements that have intermediate mass numbers and larger ...

Nuclear Power

Controlled nuclear fission reactions are used to generate electricity. Any nuclear reactor that produces power via the fission of uranium or plutonium by ...

Nuclear Fusion

The process of converting very light nuclei into heavier nuclei is also accompanied by the conversion of mass into large amounts of energy, a process ...

Nuclear Transmutation

Nuclear transmutation is the conversion of one nuclide into another. It can occur by the radioactive decay of a nucleus, or the reaction of a nucleus with ...

Use models to compare nuclear reactions including alpha decay, beta decay and gamma decay; nuclear fusion and nuclear fission.

PS.Chm.1.2

Atomic Orbitals

An atomic orbital represents the three-dimensional regions in an atom where an electron has the highest probability to reside. The radial distribution ...

The Pauli Exclusion Principle

The arrangement of electrons in the orbitals of an atom is called its electron configuration. We describe an electron configuration with a symbol that ...

The Energies of Atomic Orbitals

In an atom, the negatively charged electrons are attracted to the positively charged nucleus. In a multielectron atom, electron-electron repulsions are ...

The Aufbau Principle and Hund's Rule

To determine the electron configuration for any particular atom, we can build the structures in the order of atomic numbers. Beginning with hydrogen, and ...

electron-configuration-of-multielectron-atoms

Electron Configuration of Multielectron Atoms

The alkali metal sodium (atomic number 11) has one more electron than the neon atom. This electron must go into the lowest-energy subshell available, the ...

Use models to explain how electrons are distributed in atoms.

PS.Chm.1.3

Periodic Classification of the Elements

The periodic table arranges atoms based on increasing atomic number so that elements with the same chemical properties recur periodically. When their ...

The Periodic Table

As early chemists discovered more elements, they realized that various elements could be grouped by their similar chemical behaviors. One such grouping ...

Atomic Mass

Atoms &mdash; and the protons, neutrons, and electrons that compose them &mdash; are extremely small. For example, a carbon atom weighs less than 2 ...

Molar Mass

The identity of a substance is defined not only by the types of atoms or ions it contains but by the quantity of each type of atom or ion. For example, ...

Use the Periodic Table as a model to predict the relative properties of elements based on the pattern of valence electrons in the outermost energy levels of atoms.

PS.Chm.2.1

atomic-radii-and-effective-nuclear-charge

Atomic Radii and Effective Nuclear Charge

The elements in groups of the periodic table exhibit similar chemical behavior. This similarity occurs because the members of a group have the same number ...

Ionic Radii

Ionic radius is the measure used to describe the size of an ion. A cation always has fewer electrons and the same number of protons as the parent atom; it ...

Ionization Energy

The amount of energy required to remove the most loosely bound electron from a gaseous atom in its ground state is called its first ionization energy ...

Electron Affinity

The electron affinity (EA) is the energy change for adding an electron to a gaseous atom to form an anion (negative ion).



This process can be either ...

Construct an explanation to infer the atomic size, reactivity, electronegativity, and ionization energy of an element based on its position in the Periodic Table.

PS.Chm.2.2

Types of Chemical Bonds

Chemical bonding theories were pioneered by American chemist Gilbert&#xA0;N. Lewis. He developed a model called the Lewis model to explain the type and ...

Lewis Symbols and the Octet Rule

Chemical bonds are complex interactions between two or more atoms or ions, which reduce the potential energy of the molecule. Gilbert N. Lewis developed a ...

Ionic Bonding and Electron Transfer

Ions are atoms or molecules bearing an electrical charge. A cation (a positive ion) forms when a neutral atom loses one or more electrons from its valence ...

The Born-Haber Cycle

Lattice Energy&#xA0;

An ionic compound is stable because of the electrostatic attraction between its positive and negative ions. The lattice energy of a ...

trends-in-lattice-energy-ion-size-and-charge

Trends in Lattice Energy: Ion Size and Charge

An ionic compound is stable because of the electrostatic attraction between its positive and negative ions. The lattice energy of a compound is a measure ...

Covalent Bonding and Lewis Structures

Compared to ionic bonds, which results from the transfer of electrons between metallic and nonmetallic atoms, covalent bonds result from the mutual ...

Electronegativity

Whether a bond is nonpolar or polar covalent is determined by a property of the bonding atoms called electronegativity.&#xA0;

Electronegativity values of ...

Analyze and interpret data to explain the mechanisms and properties of the two main types of intramolecular (ionic and covalent) bonds.

PS.Chm.3.1

Analyze the structure of atoms and isotopes.

Qualitative Analysis for Ion Identification

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