Name: choosing the right lab glass material
Uploaded: 2023-04-30T06:42:44.000Z
Duration: 9 min 52 s
Channel: JoVE

K12 Standards

Texas Essential Knowledge and Skills

High School

Specialised Topic in Science

112.51.c.1.

112.51.c.1.D.

Common Lab Glassware and Uses

1. Glassware for Qualitative Uses
<ol>
	<li>Beakers
	<ol>
		<li>The beaker is one of the most common pieces of glassware in the laboratory. It is a simple cylindrical container used to hold solids and liquids with sizes ranging from very small (10 mL) to very large (4,000 mL). It has a lip for ease of pouring and decanting liquids. The graduations are approximate, but very useful when exact volumes are not needed.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Flasks
	<ol>
		<li>Flasks are designed so the contents can be swirled without spilling. They are also easily fitted with stoppers and often have the stopper size written directly on the flask.</li>
		<li>Erlenmeyer Flask
		<ol>
			<li>The most common of all flasks, the Erlenmeyer flask has a flat bottom with approximate graduations. The flat bottom allows the Erlenmeyer flask to be directly heated and used in simple reflux (boiling) and condensation procedures.</li>
		</ol>
		</li>
		<li>Florence Flask
		<ol>
			<li>The Florence flask is a hybrid between the round bottom and the Erlenmeyer flask and ranges from a few hundred milliliters to a few liters in size. Florence flasks can have either a flat bottom or a round bottom, so applications vary from direct heating to using a heating mantle. It does not have a ground glass joint, so a stopper is used to seal the container. The rounded shape is better for applications that involve boiling.</li>
		</ol>
		</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Test Tubes
	<ol>
		<li>Test tubes are relatively small cylindrical vessels used to store, heat, and mix chemicals. While the test tube comes in specific sizes, it&#39;s typically used in qualitative observational procedures.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Watch Glass
	<ol>
		<li>The watch glass is used when a high surface area is needed for a small volume of liquid. This is common for crystallizing and evaporating, as well as other qualitative procedures. Watch glasses can also be used as covers for beakers, but not flasks.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Crystallization Dish
	<ol>
		<li>The crystallization dish is a hybrid between a watch glass and the Petri dish (common in biological procedures). It has a low height-to-width ratio, which means the sides are very low compared to the width of the vessel. This allows for high surface areas for evaporation, but the crystallization dish is more commonly used as a short-term container for liquids in a variety of bath processes (water, acid, or oil).</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>
2. Glassware for Measuring
<ol>
	<li>Graduated Cylinder
	<ol>
		<li>The graduated cylinder is used to measure a semi-precise volume of liquid. While it is not as precise as volumetric glassware, it is much more accurate and precise than a beaker or flask (to within 1%). Volumes are measured to the bottom of the meniscus for aqueous solutions and the top of the meniscus for non-aqueous hydrophobic solutions. Graduated cylinders are general-use pieces of &#34;TD&#34; glassware, where the delivery volume is important. Higher levels of accuracy require volumetric glassware.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Volumetric Glassware
	<ol>
		<li>Used for making standardized (high precision) solutions, where precision is known to four significant figures.</li>
		<li>Flasks
		<ol>
			<li>Volumetric flasks are a mainstay when preparing any standardized solution. Since volumes are not necessarily additive, the volumetric flask is used to make solutions of precise volumes. The etched mark on the neck of the glassware signifies the volume to high precision at the specified temperature. A solution is prepared by adding enough solvent to dissolve the solute, then the solute is added and dissolved. The solution is then diluted to the mark using the solvent. The solution is mixed throughout the dilution process and sometimes requires being placed in an ice bath in the case of exothermic dissolution (typically strong acids or bases). Volumetric flasks range in size from 1 mL to 4,000 mL and larger.</li>
		</ol>
		</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Pipettes
	<ol>
		<li>Volumetric pipettes are known for high precision, like volumetric flasks, but are used to dispense liquids, typically in the preparation of solutions in a volumetric flask. The pipette also has an etched mark denoting a precise volume, and the solution is drawn into the pipette using a pipette bulb, never by mouth.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Micropipettes
	<ol>
		<li>Micropipettes are a specialized class of volumetric pipettes used for very small volumes from 1 &#181;l to 1,000 &#181;L. The micropipette uses plastic disposable tips, but these can be re-used under appropriate situations. Most micropipettes have an adjustable range of volumes using separate withdraw and dispense actions on the pipette body. The mechanism for adjusting, determining volume limits, and ejecting disposable tips varies by manufacturer.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Burettes
	<ol>
		<li>The burette is an analytical piece of glassware used to dispense variable (but precise) volumes of liquids. Commonly found in analytical chemistry, the burette is used in a variety of titration experiments.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>
3. Procedural Glassware
<ol>
	<li>Round-bottom (Boiling) Flasks
	<ol>
		<li>Round-bottom flasks, or boiling flasks, are typically found in synthesis experiments, since the round shape allows for even heating and stirring. The neck typically has a female ground-glass joint and can be attached to condensers and other pieces of glassware. To prevent spills, the solution volume should not exceed 50% of the flask volume. Sizes range from 50 mL to 20,000 mL.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Separatory Funnel
	<ol>
		<li>While most common to the organic chemistry lab, the separatory funnel is used to separate liquids of different densities and solubilities. The bottom of the separatory funnel is very narrow and leads to a stopcock, allowing for precise separations of liquids, while the top is very wide for ease in shaking and mixing.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Filter (B&#252;chner) Flask (used for vacuum filtration)
	<ol>
		<li>The filter flask looks like an Erlenmeyer flask, but has a hose barb near the top to attach a vacuum hose. The flask typically has thicker walls than an Erlenmeyer due to the reduced pressure (vacuum) used with the flask. Vacuum (B&#252;chner) funnels fit into the neck of the flask using a rubber collar or a 1-hole rubber stopper.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Funnels (used for filtering and transferring)
	<ol>
		<li>Traditional funnels used for gravity filtration have a wide cone-shaped body, for adding and filtering solutions, and a long narrow stem, for delivery into a flask. Filter paper is folded into a cone shape, inserted into the funnel, and wetted with a solvent (typically water). The powder funnel has a wider stem designed for dispensing solids and viscous liquids. Filter paper is only used in conjunction with the filter funnel.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Ceramics
	<ol>
		<li>B&#252;chner Funnel
		<ol>
			<li>The ceramic B&#252;chner funnel fits into the filter (B&#252;chner) flask using a rubber cone or 1-hole rubber stopper. The funnel is typically made of ceramic with pin-sized holes in the flat bottom. Filter paper is placed on top of the holes and wetted with solvent (water) to prevent solids from getting under the filter paper.</li>
		</ol>
		</li>
		<li>Crucible
		<ol>
			<li>A crucible is made of ceramic and holds small amounts of chemicals during heating at high temperatures. Depending on the specific type, the crucible can withstand temperatures above 1,000 &#176;C and is used in conjunction with a Bunsen burner or furnace. Common uses include heating a hydrated solid to remove water or combusting a compound to determine organic content.</li>
		</ol>
		</li>
		<li>Mortar and Pestle
		<ol>
			<li>While the mortar and pestle originated in chemistry (and alchemy) laboratories, it is more common in pharmacology, biology, and culinary applications. Made of ceramic or stone, materials are placed in the bowl-shaped mortar and ground and crushed using the pestle.</li>
		</ol>
		</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>

While there are few rules to how glassware must be used, each piece of glassware was designed for a general set of procedures. Unique situations create some flexibility on the application, and nearly all glassware can be further adapted and customized with the assistance of a professional glassblower.

common lab glassware and uses

Source: Laboratory of Dr. Neal Abrams &#8212; SUNY College of Environmental Science and Forestry
Glassware is a regular appearance in the professional chemistry laboratory, because it has a relatively low cost, extreme durability, and specific levels of precision. While some labware is being supplemented with plastic or even everyday kitchen materials, glass is still the standard material by which laboratory work is done. While there are few rules about glassware, there are some best practices for use that set the groundwork for good techniques in the lab.
Glass is ubiquitous in the chemistry laboratory, but not all glass is the same. Standard consumer-grade glass is known as &#34;soda-lime&#34; or &#34;float&#34; glass. It is good for many applications, but cracks under rapid heating and cooling applications due to expansion/contraction. Borosilicate glass is used to solve this problem in the lab. Made with an introduction of small amounts of boron, borosilicate glass has a very low coefficient of expansion, which prevents internal stresses. The most common trade name for borosilicate glass is Pyrex, the same type of glass used in some kitchen bakeware.
While borosilicate glass is thermally robust, the impurities found in borosilicate and standard glass lead to a limited temperature range and optical quality. Fused silica, or quartz, is used in situations where glass needs to be heated above 450 &#176;C or to be transparent to UV light. Fused silica is chemically-pure silicon dioxide with no impurities and a very high melting point above 1,600 &#176;C. The easiest way to tell the difference between borosilicate glass and fused silica in the lab is to look down the long axis of a piece of glassware. A greenish color is indicative of borosilicate impurities, whereas fused silica is optically clear and colorless.

Source: Laboratory of Dr. Neal Abrams &#8212; SUNY College of Environmental Science and Forestry
Glassware is a regular appearance in the professional ...

Glassware has long been a core component of the chemistry laboratory.Glass?s longstanding popularity has remained high because it is relatively inert, highly durable, easily customizable, and inexpensive.Because of these desirable traits, glass has been used to create a wide assortment of apparatuses. Being unfamiliar with this equipment could lead to confusion, misuse and disaster. Therefore, a solid understanding of glassware is necessary to ensure safety and success in the lab.This video will explore many of the common pieces of glassware found in the laboratory.Laboratory glassware is manufactured with different compositions, each possessing unique properties that are useful in different experimental conditions.Equipment made from consumer-grade, or "soda-lime", glass is the least expensive, and is adequate for many applications. However, rapid temperature changes can cause this glass to crack.Borosilicate glass, which exhibits little thermal expansion, is preferred in thermally stressful conditions. This glass is manufactured through the addition of small amounts of boron, and is often used in bakeware, such as Pyrex.However, both borosilicate and standard glass contain impurities, resulting in reduced optical quality. Therefore, a glass composed of purely silicon and oxygen is utilized in situations that require the glass to be transparent to UV light. This is known as fused silica or fused quartz.Now that you understand the different types of glass used in the laboratory, let?s look at common glassware, as well as related paraphernalia.We will begin our survey with glassware used for qualitative analysis. Any measurements, or graduations, on this equipment are approximate, and they are best used for procedures that do not require high levels of accuracy. First, the beaker, one of the most common pieces of glassware, is available in a range of sizes. Beakers are often used to hold, mix, and heat reagents. Most have a small lip for pouring liquids.Test tubes, which are relatively small cylindrical vessels, are also used to store, heat, and mix chemicals. Their design allows for multiple samples to be easily manipulated, stored, and observed at once.Watch glasses are used when a large surface area is needed for a small volume of liquid. This is common for crystallizing and evaporating procedures. Watch glasses can also be used as covers for beakers.The crystallization dish is similar to the watch glass, proving a large surface area for liquids. However, it is more commonly used as a container for bath processes. Lastly, the flask. Each type of flask is shaped for its purpose, but all are designed with wide bodies and narrow necks, allowing the contents to be mixed without spilling. They are also easily fitted with stoppers. The Erlenmeyer flask is the most common. The flat bottom allows it to be directly heated and used in simple boiling and condensation procedures.Next, we will review glassware used for accurately measuring liquids. The graduated cylinder is used to measure semi-precise volumes, and deliver to another container. The surface of most liquids forms a concave meniscus in narrow glassware. Volume should be read at the bottom for accuracy.?While the graduated cylinder is versatile, volumetric glassware is used when a higher level of accuracy is required. Volumetric glassware can be an order of magnitude more precise than a graduated cylinder. Each piece is marked with either "TD" or "TC". If the equipment is calibrated to transport the measured volume, it is marked "TD" for "To deliver". Conversely, other pieces of volumetric glassware are only calibrated to be accurate while holding the measured volume, and are marked "TC" for "To Contain".The volumetric flask is used to make and contain solutions of precise volumes. This is done by first dissolving the solute, and then adding solvent to the graduation to dilute to the intended volume.Unlike the apparatuses that are accurate only to contain, the volumetric pipette is used to deliver a specific volume with a high degree of accuracy. A bulb is used to draw the liquid, never by mouth.The burette is used to deliver variable, but precise, volumes of liquid, controlled with the stopcock. It?s often used in titration experiments.Next, our survey will cover glassware that has more specific procedural uses.First, the round-bottom, or?boiling flask, is designed to allow for even heating and stirring, to drive chemical reactions. To prevent spills, it should never be filled to more than 50% of its total volume.While traditional funnels have a familiar shape, there can be variations depending on their intended use. For example, funnels used for gravity filtration are fitted with folded filter paper. Powder funnels have wider stems designed for dispensing solids and viscous liquids.The separatory funnel is used in liquid-liquid extractions to separate immiscible liquids of different densities. It has a specialized shape, with a wide top for mixing, and a narrow bottom leading to a stopcock for the separation. The B?chner flask and funnel are used for vacuum filtration. The funnel is typically ceramic, with pin-sized holes in its flat bottom. It is fitted into the flask with a rubber collar to provide an airtight seal. The flask resembles an Erlenmeyer in shape, but has a barbed side arm for the vacuum hose.In some chemical processes, laboratory glassware may need to be sealed, connected, or supported. Sealing glassware is typically done with a stopper. Rubber and neoprene are?used in pieces with standard necks. They can be manufactured with holes to allow for the insertion of tubes, thermometers, or stirrers, while still providing an airtight seal.Glass stoppers are used to seal equipment with ground glass fittings. These provide a strong seal, but the possibility of glass to glass seizing necessitates the use of joint grease. Joint grease must also be used when connecting two pieces of glassware together. However, because these joints are not mechanically strong, plastic connector clips are used to prevent them from separating.When additional structural support is needed, glassware is often clamped in place. Clamps provide this support by connecting to a piece?s neck on one end, and a retort stand on the other.?While some glassware?should always be secured, clamping can also be used to ensure that components?stay upright during a procedure.Now that we've surveyed many of the pieces of glassware found in professional laboratories, we'll discuss some of their many uses.Observation of naturally occurring, spontaneous reactions can be performed in the lab by replicating their original conditions. Glassware is vital to these investigations because of its inert and durable nature.In the Miller-Urey experiment, the environment of early earth was simulated in a round-bottomed flask to investigate the abiotic synthesis of organic compounds. A large manifold of interlocking glassware helped to provide the necessary atmospheric gasses, which was then sparked, simulating lighting. The product was pipetted out of the flask to avoid contamination, and stored for further investigation.When synthesizing organic molecules, it is often necessary to apply heat for long periods of time. In this example, a carbon-carbon cross-coupling reaction was performed using an apparatus made from three pieces of glassware. The apparatus - made from a round-bottomed flask, a reflux condenser, and an oil bubbler - allows for the solution to be boiled indefinitely, without losing volume or changing pressure.You've just watched JoVE's introduction to Common Glass Laboratory Equipment and Their Uses. You should now be familiar with the glassware used for qualitative, measuring, and procedural applications.Thanks for watching!

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Chemistry

General Chemistry

choosing the right lab glass material

Lab glass materials affect durability, heating, and clarity in chemistry work. Glass is common in the laboratory because it is relatively low cost, extremely durable, and precise for many tasks. Some labware is now replaced by plastic or even everyday kitchen materials, but glass remains the standard material for laboratory work. Good lab technique also depends on best practices for using glassware.

Not all glass used in labs is the same. Standard consumer-grade glass is called soda-lime glass, or float glass. It works for many uses, but it can crack when heated and cooled quickly because it expands and contracts. That makes it less suited to rapid temperature changes.

Borosilicate glass is made to handle that problem. It contains small amounts of boron, which gives it a very low coefficient of expansion. This reduces internal stress when temperatures change. A common trade name for borosilicate glass is Pyrex, which is also used for some kitchen bakeware.

Even borosilicate glass has limits. Impurities in both borosilicate and standard glass can reduce the temperature range they can handle and can affect optical quality. When glass must be heated above 450 °C or must let UV light pass through, fused silica, also called quartz, is used instead. Fused silica is chemically pure silicon dioxide, and it has a very high melting point above 1,600 °C.

A simple visual check can help tell borosilicate glass from fused silica. Looking down the long axis of the glassware may show a greenish color in borosilicate glass because of impurities. Fused silica is optically clear and colorless. This difference is useful when selecting the right glass for a lab task.

Choosing the Right Lab Glass Material

Lab glass materials affect durability, heating, and clarity in chemistry work. Glass is common in the laboratory because it is relatively low cost, extremely durable, and precise for many tasks. Some labware is now replaced by plastic or even everyday kitchen materials, but glass remains the standard material for laboratory work. Good lab technique also depends on best practices for using glassware. Not all glass used in labs is the same. Standard consumer-grade glass is called soda-lime...

solutions and concentrations

Preparing and Measuring Solution Concentration

Preparing and measuring solution concentration are key parts of chemistry. A solution is a homogeneous mixture. It contains solutes, which are present in small amounts, and a solvent, which is present in a large amount. This topic focuses on solid-liquid solutions. In these mixtures, one or more solid solutes dissolve in a liquid solvent. Solutions are used often in chemistry because they help store and handle small amounts of material, support chemical reactions, and make materials with...

determining the density of a solid and liquid

determining-the-density-of-a-solid-and-liquid

Measuring Density with Lab Glassware

Density is the mass of a substance divided by its volume. It is often written in units such as g/mL or kg/m3. Because density does not change with the amount of material present, it is an intensive property. To find density, both mass and volume must be measured. A balance is used to measure mass for both solids and liquids. The method for volume depends on the type of sample. Liquids take the shape of their container, so their volume can be measured with glassware such as a graduated...

determining the mass percent composition in an aqueous solution

determining-the-mass-percent-composition-in-an-aqueous-solution

Analyzing Solute Content in Water Solutions

Analyzing solute content in water solutions is an important analytical and forensic technique. In an aqueous solution, water is the solvent. The solvent is the main component. The dissolved minor component is the solute. The solute is dissolved in the solvent to make a solution. Water is the most common solvent in everyday life. It is also the main solvent in nearly all biological systems. In chemistry labs, the solvent may be another liquid, such as acetone, ether, or an alcohol. The solute...

determining the empirical formula

Empirical Formula by Gravimetric Analysis

Gravimetric analysis can be used to determine the empirical formula of a compound. The empirical formula gives the smallest whole-number ratio of elements in a molecular compound. In this experiment, that ratio is found for copper chloride hydrate, Cu x Cl y · nH2O. The method relies on the law of conservation of mass. Because mass is conserved, a reaction can be tracked by measuring changes in mass. This makes gravimetric analysis a simple and accurate way to help determine chemical formulas...

determining the solubility rules of ionic compounds

determining-the-solubility-rules-of-ionic-compounds

Qualitative Analysis for Ion Identification

Qualitative analysis can be used to identify the ions in an ionic compound and to infer solubility from the products that form. It is a branch of analytical chemistry that uses chemical properties and reactions to determine whether a cation or an anion is present. The same known solubility rules that guide these tests can also be learned by observing the reaction products. This approach is not usually used in modern industrial chemistry labs, but it is practical in the field because it does...

using a ph meter

Measuring Acidic and Basic pH

Measuring acidic and basic pH helps describe how a solution behaves. Acids donate protons, or H+ ions, and bases donate hydroxide ions, or OH- ions. When acids and bases are mixed, they can neutralize each other. A neutral substance is neither acidic nor basic. pH is a practical way to compare proton concentration in solutions. The amount of H+ in most solutions is very small, so pH makes the value easier to use. pH was first defined from the reciprocal of proton concentration and was later...

introduction to titration

Acid-Base Titration of Vinegar

Acid-base titration is a common way to measure the concentration of an unknown solution. It is also called volumetric analysis because careful volume measurement is a key part of the method. In this technique, a standard solution is used to react with an analyte whose concentration is not known. Titrations can be grouped by the type of reaction they use. The most common examples are acid-base titrations and redox titrations. During a typical titration, the titrant is placed in a burette and...

ideal gas law

Gas Laws Behind Pressure, Volume, and Heat

Gas laws explain how pressure, volume, temperature, and the amount of gas are related. For most common gases near normal conditions, these relationships are a useful model. They also help connect what happens on the microscopic level with what we can measure in a lab, such as pressure and volume. The history of the ideal gas law began in the 17th century with a key pattern in air. Robert Boyle confirmed that pressure and volume are inversely proportional. This relationship is called Boyle’s...

spectrophotometric determination of an equilibrium constant

spectrophotometric-determination-of-an-equilibrium-constant

Measuring K with Beer’s Law and Color

The equilibrium constant, K, can be measured by tracking color in a chemical equilibrium. For a system with one colored species, spectrophotometry is used to relate absorbance to concentration. The colored component can then be measured directly, while the colorless components are found from the balanced chemical equation. This lab uses the Fe(SCN)2+ system to build a Beer’s law curve from experimental data. That curve is then applied to find the concentration of the colored ion in the...

le ch&#226;telier's principle

Chemical Equilibrium Shifts in a Color Test

Chemical equilibrium shifts are shown with a color test using iron(III) ions and thiocyanate ions. In this reversible reaction, Fe3+ and SCN- combine to form FeSCN2+. The changing color of the solution helps show which side of the equilibrium is favored. The experiment follows Le Châtelier's principle. This principle says that when temperature, pressure, or concentration changes disturb a system at equilibrium, the system responds by counteracting that change. Here, the focus is on...

freezing-point depression to determine an unknown compound

freezing-point-depression-to-determine-an-unknown-compound

Using Freezing Point to Identify an Unknown

Freezing-point depression can help identify an unknown compound. When a solid compound dissolves in a solvent, the freezing point of the solution becomes lower than the freezing point of the pure solvent. This change is linked to the molecular weight of the solute. In this experiment, the unknown compound is dissolved in cyclohexane. The freezing point of the cyclohexane solution is measured, and the freezing point of pure cyclohexane is measured as well. The difference between the two...

determining rate laws and the order of reaction

determining-rate-laws-and-the-order-of-reaction

Measuring Reaction Speed and Rate Law

Chemical reaction speed depends on the rate law and the reaction order. These ideas help describe how reactants change into products over time. The rate of a reaction can be affected by temperature, concentration, and the physical properties of the reactants. The rate law shows the role of each reactant in a reaction. It is written as a rate equation, where A and B are concentrations of different molecular species, m and n are reaction orders, and k is the rate constant. The reaction rate also...

using differential scanning calorimetry to measure changes in enthalpy

using-differential-scanning-calorimetry-to-measure-changes-in-enthalpy

Differential Scanning Calorimetry and Heat Flow

Differential scanning calorimetry, or DSC, is a thermodynamic analysis method that tracks heat flow as temperature changes. It compares a sample material sealed in a pan with an empty reference pan. Both pans are exposed to the same temperature conditions. The instrument records the energy difference needed to keep the two pans at the same temperature. This difference comes from the different heat capacities of the sample and the reference pan. As the temperature changes, the energy absorbed...

coordination chemistry complexes

Ligands and Color in Metal Complexes

Transition metals form coordination complexes with ligands in many everyday materials. These metals appear in vitamin supplements, electroplating baths, pigments in paints, and minerals. In many cases, they are found as cations because they readily oxidize, or lose electrons. Ligands are electron donors that surround the metal center. Their bond to the metal is called a coordinate-covalent bond. This bond is not purely ionic or covalent. It is dynamic, so ligands can exchange and re-coordinate...

general chemistry

This collection helps provide a solid foundation in general chemistry by showcasing basic lab techniques, demonstrating commonly used equipment, and exploring the theory behind fundamental methodology in Chemistry. 

Learn how soda-lime glass, borosilicate glass, and fused silica differ in the lab, and why each type matters for heating, durability, and UV use.

Choosing the Right Lab Glass Material | JoVE K12

Biology

BIO.1

BIO.1.D

Physics

PHYS.1

PHYS.1.D

Chemistry and Physics

IPC.1

IPC.1.D

Neal Abrams

SUNY College of Environmental Science and Forestry

Overview

Principles of Glassware Composition

Qualitative Glassware

Quantitative Glassware

Procedural Glassware

Supporting Equipment

Applications

Summary

The Scientific Method

The scientific method is a detailed, empirical problem-solving process used by biologists and other scientists. This iterative approach involves ...

Inductive Reasoning

Inductive reasoning is a form of logical thinking that uses related observations to arrive at a general conclusion. It is uncertain and operates in ...

Deductive Reasoning

Deductive reasoning, or deduction, is the type of logic used in hypothesis-based science. In deductive reasoning, the pattern of thinking moves in the ...

Correlation and Causation

Correlation and CausationStatistical tests can calculate whether there is a relationship, or correlation, between independent and dependent variables. A ...

Ask questions and define problems related to specialized topics of study based on observations or information from text, phenomena, models, or investigations;

112.51.c.1.A.

Scientific Method

The scientific method is used to solve problems and explain phenomena. The development of the scientific method coincided with changes in philosophy ...

Demonstrating the Scientific Method with Tree Branches
ExpandObtain branches containing a few dozen typical leaves from five different local tree species. ...

Observation and Background Research
ExpandNOTE: The first two steps in the scientific process involve studying and observing natural phenomena of ...

Problem-Solving

A problem-solving strategy is a plan of action used to find a solution. It involves trial and error, algorithms, heuristics, and insights. Effective ...

Problem Definition

Problem definition is the initial and the most essential step in research.
The researcher identifies and explains the specific issue or gap to be ...

Apply science practices related to specialized topics of study to plan and conduct investigations or use engineering practices to design solutions to problems;

112.51.c.1.B.

Proper Personal Protective Equipment

Robert M. Rioux &#38; William A Elliott, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA
Hazards are many and varied in the laboratory, but the right ...

Emergency Eyewash and Shower Stations

Robert M. Rioux, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA
The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) mandates that an emergency ...

Electrical Safety

Robert M. Rioux &amp; Suprita Jharimune, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA
Among the many hazards present in the laboratory, electrical ...

Working with Centrifuges

Source: Robert M. Rioux &amp; Suprita Jharimune, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA
Earth's gravitational force is capable of separating ...

Working with Hot and Cold Sources

Source: Robert M. Rioux &amp; Suprita Jharimune, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA
Working with extreme temperatures, both high and low, ...

guidelines-in-case-of-a-laboratory-emergency

Guidelines in Case of a Laboratory Emergency

Robert M. Rioux &amp; Zhifeng Chen, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA
The most common laboratory emergencies include chemical spills, ...

chemical-storage-categories-hazards-and-compatibilities

Chemical Storage: Categories, Hazards And Compatibilities

Source: Robert M. Rioux &amp; Taslima A. Zaman, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA
While the use of various chemicals in experimental ...

Safe Handling of Mineral Acids

Source: Robert M. Rioux &#38; Taslima A. Zaman, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA
A mineral acid (or inorganic acid) is defined as a ...

Handling Chemical Spills

Source: Robert M. Rioux &#38; Taslima Zaman, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA
Since chemicals are commonly used for laboratory research ...

Proper Use of Autoclaves

Robert M. Rioux &amp; Zhifeng Chen, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA
Autoclaving is one of the most commonly used methods in the ...

Fume Hoods and Laminar Flow Cabinets

Robert M. Rioux &amp; William A. Elliott, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA
Fume hoods and laminar flow cabinets are engineering controls ...

Decontamination for Laboratory Biosafety

Robert M. Rioux and Zhifeng Chen, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA
Decontamination is essential for laboratory biosafety, as the ...

Proper Waste Disposal

Robert M. Rioux and Taslima A. Zaman, Pennsylvania State University, Pennsylvania, PA

Users are responsible for the proper disposal of the waste ...

Use appropriate safety equipment and practices during laboratory, classroom, and field investigations as outlined in Texas Education Agency-approved safety standards;

112.51.c.1.C.

Lab Techniques

Measurement Accuracy
The ability to repeat an experiment and get the same results, or reproducibility, is essential in scientific research. However, ...

Source: Smaa Koraym at Johns Hopkins University, MD, USA

	Preparation of LaboratoryExpand
	Here we show the laboratory preparation for 10 students ...

Source: Smaa Koraym at Johns Hopkins University, MD, USA

	Determining the Density of an EggExpand
	Density is a measure of how compact a substance or ...

Proper Lab Notebook Keeping

Organic Lab Notebook Keeping
Record keeping is a vital skill in science and organic chemistry labs. Without proper notes, descriptions, quantities, or ...

Source: Lara Al Hariri at the University of Massachusetts Amherst, MA, USA

	Preparation of the LaboratoryExpand
	Here, we show the laboratory preparation ...

Source: Lara Al Hariri and Ahmed Basabrain at the University of Massachusetts Amherst, MA, USA

	Nitration of Methyl BenzoateExpand
	From this lab onward, ...

Use tools appropriate to the specialized topic of study;

SI Units: 2019 Redefinition

Measurement is integral to analytical chemistry. Each record comprises a number &#8211; denoting the magnitude&#160; &#8211; and the unit &#8211; a ...

International System of Units

The International System of Units, known as the SI system, is a universally accepted measurement system recognized and used worldwide. The SI system is ...

Measurement: Standard Units

Every measurement provides three kinds of information: the size or magnitude of the measurement (a number), a standard of comparison for the measurement ...

Measurement: Derived Units

The International System of Units or SI system, by international agreement, has fixed measurement units for seven fundamental properties: length, mass, ...

Collect quantitative data using the International System of Units (SI) or qualitative data as evidence as appropriate to the specialized topic of study;

112.51.c.1.E.

Review and Preview

Data are individual items of information obtained from a population or sample. Data may be classified as qualitative (categorical), quantitative ...

What is a Frequency Distribution

A frequency is the number of times a value of the data occurs. The sum of all the frequency values represents the total number of students included in the ...

Cumulative Frequency Distribution

A cumulative frequency distribution is another type of frequency distribution. Instead of reporting how many data values fall in some classes, it reports ...

Ogive Graph

An ogive graph is sometimes called a cumulative frequency polygon. It is one type of frequency polygon that shows cumulative frequency. In other words, ...

Histogram

The histogram is a graphical representation in the x-y form of data distribution in a data set. The horizontal x-axis is labeled with what the data ...

Relative Frequency Histogram

The relative frequency depicts the proportion of data points that have each value. The frequency tells the number of data points that have each value. ...

Scatter Plot

The most common and easiest way to display the relationship between two variables, x and y, is a scatter plot. A scatter plot shows the direction of a ...

Time-Series Graph

A time-series graph is a line graph with repeated measurements taken at successive intervals of time. It is also called a time series chart. To construct ...

Bar Graph

A bar graph is also called a bar chart and consists of bars that are separated from each other. It either uses horizontal or vertical bars to show ...

Multiple Bar Graph

As the name suggests, a multiple bar graph is the same as a bar graph but has multiple bars to depict relationships between different data values. One can ...

Pareto Chart

A Pareto chart is a bar graph or a combination of both line and bar graphs. The bar lengths represent the individual values or the frequency, while the ...

Pie Chart

A pie chart (or a pie graph) is a circular graphical chart or a pictorial representation of categorical data. It is divided into slices of pie each ...

Organize quantitative or qualitative data using representations appropriate to the specialized topic of study such as scatter plots, line graphs, bar graphs, charts, data tables, diagrams, scientific drawings, and student-prepared models;

112.51.c.1.F.

Modeling and Similitude

A scaled model of a dam is tested in a controlled environment to observe how it will manage water flow, turbulence, and pressure.
This setup predicts the ...

Typical Model Studies

Typical model studies analyze scaled-down systems to predict fluid behavior, focusing on interactions with free surfaces and flow around immersed bodies.
...

design-example-creating-a-hydraulic-model-of-a-dam-spillway

Design Example: Creating a Hydraulic Model of a Dam Spillway

A hydraulic model of a dam spillway is often created by scaling down the design, typically to a 1:15 ratio, to replicate key flow characteristics such as ...

Models, Theories, and Laws

Scientists frequently use models to help them comprehend a specific collection of phenomena. In physics, a model is a condensed version of a physical ...

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Concepts and Prototypes

The human nervous system translates sensory stimuli into neural impulses, which the brain processes into information as thoughts and memories, forming ...

Molecular Models

Physical models representing molecular architectures of chemical compounds play essential roles in understanding chemistry. The use of molecular models ...

Develop and use models to represent phenomena, systems, processes, or solutions to problems as appropriate to the specialized topic of study; and

112.51.c.1.G.

Scientific and engineering practices. The student, for at least 40% of instructional time, asks questions, identifies problems, and plans and safely conducts classroom, laboratory, and field investigations to explain phenomena or design solutions using appropriate tools and models. The student is expected to:

Choosing the Right Lab Glass Material

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