Name: atomic orbitals and quantum numbers
Uploaded: 2023-04-30T18:28:31.000Z
Duration: 2 min 28 s
Channel: JoVE

K12 Standards

Louisiana Student Standards for Science

High School

Chemistry

Matter And Its Interactions

HS-PS1-1

Electronic Structure of Atoms

原子由三种亚原子粒子构成 – 电子、质子和中子。带正电的质子和电中性的中子构成原子核，原子的全部正电荷和绝大部分质量都集中在原子核内。
电子是位于原子核周围空间中的带负电、质量较小的粒子。当原子的电子数与质子数相等时，该原子呈电中性。
电子具有双重性质——粒子性和波动性。它们在空间中的位置和能量是互补的物理量。因此，对于能量确定的电子，其位置是不确定的。
原子的量子力学模型预测，空间中三维区域内找到具有特定能量电子的概率，可以通过表达电子波动性质的波函数的平方来确定，该平方也称为电子概率密度。
描述原子中具有特定能量的电子可能空间位置的函数称为原子轨道。
每个轨道对应一组唯一的三个量子数。主量子数n将轨道分组为能级&#160;或电子层。
角动量（或称方位角）量子数 l 将壳层内的原子轨道划分为亚壳层。每个 l 值对应一种形状不同的 s、p、d 或 f 轨道。
某些轨道形状可能具有多种可能的空间取向，每种取向对应一个磁量子数 ml。给定一个亚层，其空间取向的数量等于 2l 加 1。
第四个量子数——自旋量子数 ms——与占据原子轨道的电子相关，其取值仅有两个：“正二分之一”和“负二分之一”。这一特性确保了原子中任意两个电子不可能具有完全相同的四个量子数。
将轨道相互叠加后形成一个近似球形的形状，就像围绕原子核的电子“云”。这就是原子通常被表示为球形的原因。

原子的电子结构

原子由质子和中子组成，这些粒子存在于被称为原子核的致密中央核心内，电子则分布在原子核周围。 考虑到电子的波粒二象性及其在原子核周围位置的不确定性，量子力学为原子结构提供了更准确的模型。 该模型将原子轨道描述为原子核周围存在离散能量电子的区域，其特征由四个量子数表示:n, lml 和 ms。


 <h4>量子力学模型</h4>


 原子由一个带正电的小型原子核及围绕它的电子组成。 原子核包含质子和中子。 质子的电荷为 +1，质量为 1.0073 amu。 中子不带电，质量为 1.0087 amu。 电子的电荷为 −1，质量为 0.00055 amu。 原子核中质子的数量称为原子序数 (Z)，决定了原子的元素种类。 原子核中质子数与中子数的总和称为质量数，用原子质量单位（amu）表示，约等于原子质量。 当电子和质子数相等时，原子呈电中性。


 为解释原子核周围电子的分布，科学家提出了多种模型来描述原子结构， 德布罗意关系式量化了电子同时具有粒子和波的性质。 海森堡进一步量化了这种波粒二象性，给出了不确定性原理:电子的位置（与粒子性质相关）和速度或能量（与波动性质相关）无法同时精确测定。 量子力学模型更准确地刻画了原子结构。 它以波函数平方 ψ2 的概率方式描述，确定原子中具有特定能量的电子的三维位置。 原子波函数或原子轨道描述了原子中最有可能发现电子的区域。


 原子轨道由三个量子数来表征。 主量子数 n 根据能级或‘壳层’的位置对轨道进行分组。 角动量或方位角量子数 l 根据轨道形状将轨道分组为‘子壳层’。 它具有从 0 到 n – 1 的整数值，并由字母表示: s (l = 0), p (l = 1), d (l = 2), f (l = 3), g (l = 4) 和 h (l = 5)。 磁量子数 ml 具有从 –l 到 +l范围内的 2l + 1 个值，描述了空间中轨道的方向。 此外，每个电子都有一个自旋量子数ms，可以等于±1/2。 同一原子中的两个电子不能具有相同的量子数组合。


 本文改编自<a href="https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-2e/pages/6-3-development-of-quantum-theory#0">Openstax, Chemistry 2e, Section 6

原子由质子和中子组成，它们位于致密的中心核内，称为原子核，电子则分布在原子核周围……

Education

教育

JoVE Core

Organic Chemistry

有机化学

Unit 1

第一单元

Covalent Bonding and Structure

共价键与结构

KEY TERMS AND CONCEPTS

关键术语与概念

atomic orbitals and quantum numbers

Atomic orbitals and quantum numbers describe how electrons are arranged around the nucleus. An atom has a small, positively charged nucleus with electrons surrounding it. The nucleus contains protons and neutrons, and the quantum mechanical model gives a better picture of this structure than older models.

Protons carry a +1 charge and have a mass of 1.0073 amu. Neutrons have no charge and have a mass of 1.0087 amu. Electrons carry a −1 charge and have a mass of 0.00055 amu. The number of protons is the atomic number, Z, and it defines the element. The total number of protons and neutrons is the mass number, and it is approximately equal to the atom’s mass in amu. An atom is neutral when it has equal numbers of protons and electrons.

The quantum model grew from ideas about electron behavior. The de Broglie relation showed that electrons act like both particles and waves. Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle added that an electron’s position and its velocity or energy cannot both be known with full precision at the same time. Because of this, electron location is described in a probabilistic way using the square of the wavefunction, ψ².

Atomic wavefunctions, or atomic orbitals, show the regions where electrons are most likely to be found. Orbitals are described by four quantum numbers. The principal quantum number, n, gives the energy level or shell. The angular momentum, or azimuthal, quantum number, l, describes orbital shape and forms subshells. Its values run from 0 to n − 1, and the labels are s, p, d, f, g, and h for l = 0 through 5.

The magnetic quantum number, ml, describes how an orbital is oriented in space. It has 2l + 1 possible values, ranging from −l to +l. The spin quantum number, ms, can be +1/2 or −1/2. No two electrons in the same atom can have the same set of values for all four quantum numbers.

Atomic Orbitals and Quantum Numbers

what is organic chemistry?

Carbon Compounds in Everyday Life

Organic chemistry focuses on carbon compounds called organic compounds. These compounds may come from living things or be made by chemists. Carbon is the main element in them, and it bonds with other carbon atoms as well as hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and sulfur. Carbon can form up to four strong bonds. That ability lets carbon atoms build chains and rings of many sizes, shapes, and levels of complexity. Not every carbon-containing substance is classified as organic. Carbonates, cyanides, and...

electronic structure of atoms

Atomic orbitals and quantum numbers describe how electrons are arranged around the nucleus. An atom has a small, positively charged nucleus with electrons surrounding it. The nucleus contains protons and neutrons, and the quantum mechanical model gives a better picture of this structure than older models. Protons carry a +1 charge and have a mass of 1.0073 amu. Neutrons have no charge and have a mass of 1.0087 amu. Electrons carry a −1 charge and have a mass of 0.00055 amu. The number of...

electron configurations

How Electrons Fill Atomic Orbitals

Electron filling in atoms follows a set order based on orbital energy. The Aufbau principle says each new electron enters the lowest-energy subshell available. The Pauli exclusion principle says no two electrons can share the same set of four quantum numbers. Hund’s rule of maximum multiplicity says electrons stay unpaired in equal-energy orbitals when possible. The order of filling follows the relative energies of the subshells. A common sequence is 1s, 2s, 2p, 3s, 3p, 4s, 3d, 4p, and so on.

chemical bonds

Chemical Bonds: Types and Strength

Chemical bonds help atoms reach a full valence shell like the nearest noble gas. The main bond types are ionic, covalent, and metallic. Bond energy and bond length also help explain how strong a bond is. An ionic bond forms from electrostatic attraction between cations and anions. In many cases, one atom transfers electrons to another atom, and the ions form from that transfer. Ionic bonds have no defined direction because the attraction spreads evenly through three-dimensional space. A...

polar covalent bonds

Electronegativity in Polar Covalent Bonds

Polar covalent bonds form when atoms share electrons unevenly. This happens in covalent bonds between atoms that have similar, but not identical, tendencies to attract electrons. Nonmetal atoms often make these bonds with other nonmetals. Hydrogen gas, H2, is a simple example of a covalent bond between two hydrogen atoms. A covalent bond begins when two atoms move close enough for their valence orbitals to overlap. In hydrogen, the 1s orbitals overlap and the single electrons on each atom...

lewis structures and formal charges

Lewis Structures, Bonds, and Formal Charge

Lewis structures show how atoms share electrons in covalent bonds and in polyatomic ions. Lewis symbols help draw these structures, and the periodic table helps predict how many valence electrons an atom has and how many bonds it can form to reach an octet. Group 18 elements, such as argon and helium, already have filled electron configurations. They rarely take part in chemical bonding. Atoms in group 17, such as bromine and iodine, need one more electron to reach an octet, so they can form...

vsepr theory

Molecular Shapes from Electron Pairs

Molecular shape can be predicted from the way electron pairs arrange around a central atom. Valence shell electron-pair repulsion theory, or VSEPR theory, uses a Lewis structure to count bonding pairs and lone electron pairs. The main idea is simple: electron pairs spread out as far as possible to reduce repulsion. In a molecule, the valence electrons around the central atom can be bonding pairs or lone pairs. Bonding pairs are found mainly between bonded atoms. Lone pairs stay on one atom and...

molecular geometry and dipole moments

Predicting Shape and Molecular Polarity

Molecular shape and molecular polarity can be predicted with VSEPR theory and dipole moments. Start by writing the Lewis structure of the molecule or polyatomic ion. Then count the electron groups around the central atom. Lone pairs and bonds both count as electron groups, and a single, double, or triple bond each counts as one region of electron density. Use that count to identify the electron-pair geometry. Next, use the number of lone pairs to determine the molecular structure. If more than...

resonance and hybrid structures

Resonance in Nitrite and Carbonate Ions

Resonance explains why some Lewis structures do not match the measured properties of a molecule or ion. When two or more Lewis structures have the same atom arrangement, the real electron distribution is an average of the structures shown. The nitrite anion, NO2−, is one example. It can be drawn in two ways, with the N–O and N=O bonds in different places. If nitrite had one single bond and one double bond, the two bond lengths should be different, because a double bond is shorter and stronger...

valence bond theory and hybridized orbitals

valence-bond-theory-and-hybridized-orbitals

Covalent Bond Overlap and Orbital Hybridization

Covalent bonds form when orbitals on two atoms overlap and their single electrons pair up. The bond is stronger when the overlap is greater. Maximum overlap happens when the orbitals meet along a direct line between the two nuclei. A sigma bond, or σ bond, is the kind of covalent bond found in a single bond in a Lewis structure. In a σ bond, electron density is concentrated along the internuclear axis. A pi bond, or π bond, forms when two p orbitals overlap side by side. In a π bond, the...

mo theory and covalent bonding

Bond Order and Molecular Orbitals

Molecular orbital theory explains how electrons are arranged in molecules. It treats electron regions in a molecule much like atomic orbitals in an atom. A molecular orbital is the region of space where a valence electron is most likely to be found. Molecular orbitals form through the linear combination of atomic orbitals, or LCAO. When atomic wave functions combine in phase, they create regions with high electron density. When they combine out of phase, they create nodes, or regions with no...

intermolecular forces and physical properties

intermolecular-forces-and-physical-properties

How Intermolecular Forces Affect Matter

Intermolecular forces are the attractions between molecules, and they help explain how matter behaves. These forces influence melting points, boiling points, and whether substances mix with one another. Water has a much higher boiling point than hexane, which shows that water has stronger intermolecular forces. Three main kinds of intermolecular interactions are covered here. They include ion-dipole forces, dipole-dipole interactions, and van der Waals forces, which include London dispersion...

solubility

Why Some Substances Dissolve in Water

Solution formation depends on how solutes and solvents interact. A solution is a homogeneous mixture made of a solvent, which is the larger part, and a solute, which is the smaller part. The physical state of a solution is usually the same as the solvent. Concentration is often described as dilute for a low amount of solute or concentrated for a high amount of solute. When a solute dissolves, its particles are surrounded by solvent species. This process is called solvation. If water is the...

introduction to functional groups

Functional Groups and Organic Molecules

Functional groups are groups of atoms with specific chemical properties that appear within organic molecules. They are sometimes shown as "R." These groups sit along the carbon backbone of macromolecules, which can form chains or rings of carbon atoms. Functional groups help functionalize a compound. That means they can give the molecule different physical and chemical properties. In organic chemistry, this change in group structure can strongly affect how a compound behaves. Common...

overview of advanced functional groups

Advanced Functional Groups in Organic Chemistry

Advanced functional groups are atom clusters in organic molecules that give those molecules specific chemical properties. They are sometimes shown as "R" in formulas. By changing the atoms attached to a carbon skeleton, a functional group can make a compound behave differently in physical and chemical reactions. This topic covers several major classes of organic compounds with advanced functional groups. Aromatic hydrocarbons include benzene. Phenol is another example and is also called...

key terms and concepts

Learn how atomic orbitals, shells, subshells, and the four quantum numbers describe electron arrangement in atoms through the quantum mechanical model.

Atomic Orbitals and Quantum Numbers | JoVE K12

organic chemistry

JoVE Core 有机化学（Organic Chemistry）使用简明易懂的动画视频课程解释立体化学、反应和机制的基本概念。 此外，科学家在行动视频展示了相关概念在当今世界各地实验室进行的经典和原创研究实验中的应用。

HS-PS1-2

HS-PS1-3

motion-and-stability-forces-and-interactions

Motion And Stability: Forces And Interactions

HS-PS2-6

Virginia  Standards of Learning

HIgh School

CH.2

CH.2.d

Next Generation Science Standards

Physical Science

Matter and Its Interactions

Florida Department of Education

SC.912.P.8

SC.912.P.8.5

south-carolina-college-and-career-ready-science-standards

South Carolina College and Career Ready Science Standards

C-PS1-1

C-PS1-3.

Motion and Stability: Forces and Interactions

C-PS2-6.

Physics

P-PS2-6.

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Periodic Classification of the Elements

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the-periodic-table-and-organismal-elements

The Periodic Table And Organismal Elements

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Coulomb's Law

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Electric Charges

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Sources and Properties of Electric Charge

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Electric Fields

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Intermolecular Forces

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Van der Waals Interactions

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Chemical Bonds


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Electron Behavior

Electrons are negatively charged subatomic particles attracted to and orbit around the positively-charged nucleus of an atom. They reside in spaces ...

Subatomic Particles

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Ions and Ionic Charges

In ordinary chemical reactions, the nucleus &mdash; which contains the protons and neutrons of each atom and thus identifies the element &mdash; remains ...

Use the periodic table as a model to predict the relative properties of elements based on the patterns of electrons in the outermost energy level and the composition of the nucleus of atoms.  Clarification Statement: Chemistry: Examples of properties that could be predicted from patterns could include reactivity of metals, types of bonds formed, numbers of bonds formed, atomic radius, atomic mass, or reactions with oxygen. Emphasis is on main group elements and qualitative understanding of the relative trends of ionization energy and electronegativity.

Properties of Transition Metals

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The Atomic Theory of Matter

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Chemical Equations

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Introduction to Chemical Reactions

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Temperature Dependence on Reaction Rate

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Stoichiometry, Product Yield, and Limiting Reactants

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Construct and revise an explanation for the outcome of a simple chemical reaction based on the outermost electron states of atoms, trends in the periodic table, and knowledge of the patterns of chemical properties.  Clarification Statement: Chemistry: Examples of chemical reactions could include the reaction of sodium and chlorine, carbon and oxygen, or carbon and hydrogen. Reaction classification aids in the prediction of products (e.g. synthesis, decomposition, single displacement, double displacement, and acid-base).

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Intermolecular Forces and Physical Properties



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Electric Field of Two Equal and Opposite Charges

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Electric Field

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Ionic Bonding and Electron Transfer

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Electric Dipoles and Dipole Moment

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Plan and conduct an investigation to gather evidence to compare the structure of substances at the macroscale to infer the strength of electrical forces between particles.  Clarification Statement: Emphasis is on understanding the strengths of forces between particles, not on naming specific intermolecular forces (such as dipole-dipole). Examples of particles could include ions, atoms, molecules, and network solids (such as graphite). Examples of macro-properties of substances could include the melting point and boiling point, vapor pressure, and surface tension.

bond-dissociation-energy-and-activation-energy

Bond Dissociation Energy and Activation Energy

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Bond Energies and Bond Lengths

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Coupled Reactions

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Energy Diagrams, Transition States, and Intermediates

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What is Metabolism?

Overview

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Types of Chemical Reactions: Anabolic and Catabolic

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Energy Transfer in Chemical Reactions

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Develop a model to illustrate that the release or absorption of energy from a chemical reaction system depends upon the changes in total bond energy.  Clarification Statement: Emphasis is on the idea that a chemical reaction is a system that affects the energy change.  Examples of models could include molecular-level drawings and diagrams of reactions, graphs showing the relative energies of reactants and products, and representations showing energy is conserved.

HS-PS1-4

Atomic Orbitals and Quantum Numbers

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