刻板印象、偏见与歧视

Stereotypes are overgeneralized mental beliefs applied to an entire group, such as assuming older adults are weaker and less competent. Prejudice is an unjustifiable attitude toward someone based on their group membership, often resulting from internalizing those stereotypes. For example, someone may dislike a new older neighbor before knowing them, having formed prejudice through negative stereotypes about age.

The Implicit Association Test is a computer task measuring how quickly people associate group members with positive or negative images and words. Participants classify faces or images into categories using keyboard keys. Slower response times when pairing a group with positive words suggest unconscious prejudice, as difficult associations take longer to process than automatic, ingrained ones.

Discrimination is negative action or behavior toward a group and its members, while prejudice is an attitude or feeling. An employer hiring a younger applicant over an equally qualified older candidate based solely on age commits ageist discrimination. Prejudice fuels discrimination; without acting on biased attitudes, prejudice remains internal, but discrimination manifests as harmful treatment.

Humans have two attitude types: explicit attitudes, which are conscious and controllable, and implicit attitudes, which are unconscious and uncontrollable. Because egalitarian views are socially desirable, most people avoid showing extreme bias on explicit measures. However, implicit attitude measures often reveal mild to strong racial bias or other prejudices that people may not consciously recognize or intend.

Since people tend to harbor bias toward unfamiliar groups, forming relationships with members of different groups can reduce negative attitudes. Even imagining positive interactions with members of different cultural groups increases positive attitudes toward that group and reduces anxiety about intergroup contact. Direct contact and social interaction are effective strategies for decreasing prejudice across social boundaries.

Sexism includes gender role expectations, such as assuming women should be household caretakers. Women are expected to be friendly, passive, and nurturing; when they behave assertively, they face dislike for violating gender norms. Women also experience sexism in hiring and promotion within male-dominated fields like engineering and aviation, where they are less likely to advance despite equal qualifications.

Ageism, homophobia, racism, and sexism are widespread prejudices in U.S. society. Ageism toward older adults portrays them as incompetent, weak, and slow. Homophobia leads to exclusion of LGBT individuals from social groups and employment. Racism manifests through racial profiling and discriminatory treatment. These prejudices persist partly through social learning, as children internalize biased attitudes from parents, media, and peers.