电位法：膜电极

Glass electrodes contain glass membranes with incorporated metal ions that hydrate to form negatively charged sites surrounded by metal counterions like sodium. Hydrogen ions from the solution diffuse into the membrane and displace these singly charged metal ions with high selectivity at low to moderate pH. This selective displacement creates a potential difference proportional to hydrogen ion concentration, making glass electrodes ideal for pH measurement.

Crystalline solid-state electrodes use inorganic salt crystal membranes that selectively respond to specific cations and anions of that salt. Liquid-membrane electrodes feature hydrophobic membranes containing immiscible liquid organic complexing agents or ion exchangers selective to particular ions. Both provide rapid and accurate ion concentration assessments, but liquid-membrane electrodes offer greater flexibility in targeting polyvalent cations or anions through their organic complexing agents.

Gas-sensing electrodes use membranes permeable to target gases, allowing them to diffuse into an internal electrolyte solution. The gas reacts chemically with the electrolyte, generating a potential difference proportional to the gas concentration in the external solution. This potential is then measured to determine dissolved gas levels, making these electrodes useful for monitoring oxygen, carbon dioxide, and other dissolved gases.

The selectivity coefficient measures the relative response of a membrane electrode to an interferent compared to the target analyte. A selectivity coefficient less than 1.00 indicates good selectivity for the analyte, meaning the electrode responds preferentially to the desired ion over interfering ions. This metric helps assess how well a membrane electrode discriminates between the analyte and other ions present in the sample solution.

Asymmetry potential is the membrane potential that exists even when analyte concentrations on both sides of the membrane are equal. This potential arises from structural differences and imperfections in the membrane itself. Understanding asymmetry potential is important because it affects the baseline response of membrane electrodes and must be accounted for in accurate potentiometric measurements and calibrations.

Potentiometric biosensors are membrane electrodes with immobilized biologically active species, such as enzymes, on the membrane surface. When the analyte reacts with the enzyme, it produces a product whose concentration is monitored by the underlying ion-selective electrode. This integration of enzymatic selectivity with electrochemical detection enables sensitive and specific measurement of biological analytes and metabolites.

At low to moderate pH, glass electrodes show high selectivity for hydrogen ions because H+ ions effectively displace the singly charged metal counterions from the negatively charged sites in the glass membrane. At high pH, hydrogen ion concentration decreases significantly, reducing the competitive advantage of H+ displacement. Consequently, other cations present in solution can more readily interact with the membrane sites, extending the electrode's selectivity to these alternative cations and reducing pH measurement accuracy.