来源:Roberto Leon,弗吉尼亚理工学院土木与环境工程系,美国弗吉尼亚州布莱克斯堡
聚合物材料在民用结构中被广泛应用,用途涵盖从非常柔软的密封剂到给水和废水系统中较硬的管道。聚合物最基本的定义是具有重复单元的分子结构。“聚合物”一词源自希腊语,其中"poly"意为“多”,"-mer"意为“基…
聚合物是世界上应用最广泛的材料之一,从软质密封剂到刚性水管中均可发现其存在。聚合物最基本的定义是具有由重复单元(即单体)组成的长链分子结构。聚合物可以分为多种子类别,其中最基本的两类是保持形状的塑料和具有弹性的弹性体。
塑料进一步分为热塑性塑料和热固性塑料。热塑性塑料大多呈线性结构,交联程度极低。热固性塑料通常具有更复杂的三维结构,通常具有广泛的交联。
弹性体,也称为橡胶,由长而卷曲的聚合物链组成,可被拉伸至超过其原始静止长度,但在释放后会收缩回原始尺寸。
在本视频中,我们将测定不同聚合物材料的应力-应变曲线,以了解其力学性能如何影响其使用性能。
表征聚合物最基本的方法之一是应力-应变曲线分析。该方法包括对样品施加已知载荷,并观察其产生的变形。
聚合物的应力-应变行为在很大程度上取决于所分析材料的类型。应力轴表示施加在材料上的力的大小,而应变曲线则表示由于该应力引起的相对形变。曲线的终点代表材料因所施加的力而最终失效的点。
在应力-应变曲线的线性区域中,斜率代表该材料的杨氏模量。这是给定材料的一种固有属性。在此线性区域内的变形称为弹性变形,是可逆的。超过该区域的变形称为塑性变形,是永久性的。
了解了聚合物及其性质后,让我们使用拉伸试验机来测试不同的聚合物材料。
获取丙烯酸、尼龙、高密度聚乙烯(HPDE)和聚氯乙烯(PVC)聚合物材料的典型拉伸试样。使用千分尺测量每个试样杆部多个位置的宽度和厚度,以确定其平均横截面尺寸。将每个试样测得的平均宽度和厚度记录在数据表中。
按照 JoVE 视频中关于钢材应力-应变特性的演示设置万能试验机。然后将试样放入拉伸试验机的夹具中。确保试样每一端至少有 80% 的部分牢固地夹紧在夹具内,以防止加载过程中发生滑移。也可使用砂纸来增强试样与夹具之间的握持效果。
根据制造商的说明,将电子引伸计牢固地安装在试样上。接下来,测量试样在夹具之间的长度。该值即为标距长度,将用于计算应变。现在,开始对试样施加拉伸载荷,并观察计算机显示屏上的实时载荷读数。如果测得的载荷不增加,说明试样正在夹具中滑动,需要重新安装。此时,应停止试验,并将试样重新安装到夹具上。
继续缓慢施加拉伸载荷,在整个加载过程中观察计算机生成的载荷-位移曲线的形状。在试样断裂前的某一时刻,软件将自动暂停测试。保持试样在试验机中,取下引伸计。随后继续施加拉伸载荷直至试样断裂。记录最大载荷以及断裂时的载荷。从试验机中取出断裂的试样,观察并记录断裂位置及断口特征。测量试样断裂区域的宽度和厚度,并记录最终测量数据。
对剩余的标本重复此方案,并确保记录和描述其骨折位置。
测试完成后,现在让我们来看一下拉伸试验的结果。此处,我们观察到高密度聚乙烯样品在拉伸过程中逐渐发生断裂的过程。在拉伸试验期间,试样沿长度方向出现明显的颈缩现象,这是因为聚合物分子链逐渐解缠所致,充分展示了高密度聚乙烯(HDPE)的延展性。若加载速度较慢,这一现象更为显著,可使HDPE样品伸长至原始长度的数倍。
PVC的失效过程与HDPE相似,但其杨氏模量显著更高,延展性则较低。
尼龙样品的杨氏模量几乎与聚氯乙烯(PVC)相当,但其延展性要高得多,拉伸行为更类似于高密度聚乙烯(HDPE)样品。
相比之下,丙烯酸试样基本上在没有发生任何非线性变形的情况下即发生断裂,断裂时试样无明显伸长现象。
接下来,让我们计算试样线性区域的杨氏模量。我们将在弹性变形区域内选取三组数据点,分别计算每组点的斜率。这三个斜率的平均值即为该材料的近似杨氏模量。
可以看出,杨氏模量最高的两种材料需要更大的力才能断裂。在此示例中,这对应于聚氯乙烯(PVC)和丙烯酸树脂样品。与高密度聚乙烯(HDPE)或尼龙相比,这些材料几乎不发生或仅发生极少量的塑性变形,因此属于相对脆性的材料。高密度聚乙烯和尼龙样品的杨氏模量较低,意味着它们在较小的力作用下即可发生形变。这些样品表现出明显的缩颈现象,是所测试材料中延展性最好的。
现在让我们来看一下不同聚合物的一些常见应用。几乎各个专业领域都会使用塑料,从医疗器械到高强度建筑材料均如此。
在土木工程应用中,聚合物被广泛用于密封剂、管道或软管、墙板、涂层和粘合剂。聚合物的多样化特性使其几乎适用于任何工程需求。
弹性体是一类特殊的聚合物,因其独特的性能而被广泛应用。由于其具有很高的拉伸比、不导电以及极强的防水性,因此在从电线绝缘层到实验室所用丁腈手套等多种应用中均具有重要用途。
您刚刚观看了 JoVE 关于聚合物拉伸试验的介绍视频。现在,您应该理解了聚合物科学的基本原理,并掌握了用于确定不同聚合物材料应力-应变关系的标准实验室测试方法。
感谢观看!
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Q1: What is a polymer and how are polymers classified?
A polymer is a molecular structure with a long chain of repeating subunits called monomers. Polymers are classified into three main categories: plastics, elastomers, and rigid rod polymers. Plastics subdivide into thermoplastics, which soften when heated, and thermosets, which do not soften on heating. Elastomers are long, coiled chains that stretch beyond their original length but contract back when released.
Q2: What does a stress-strain curve tell you about a material's behavior?
A stress-strain curve shows how a material deforms under applied force. The stress axis represents force applied, while the strain axis represents relative deformation. The linear region's slope indicates Young's modulus, an intrinsic material property. Deformation in the linear region is elastic and reversible, while deformation beyond this point is plastic and permanent. Understanding stress strain characteristics of steels helps engineers compare material behaviors across different material types.
Q3: How do thermoplastics and thermosets differ structurally?
Thermoplastics are mostly linear or branched polymers with little to no cross-linking between chains, allowing them to soften when heated. Thermosets have complicated three-dimensional structures with extensive cross-linking, preventing them from softening on heating. This structural difference makes thermosets more rigid and heat-resistant than thermoplastics.
Q4: What is necking and what does it reveal about polymer ductility?
Necking is a significant narrowing that occurs in a specimen as polymeric chains uncoil during tensile loading. Materials like high-density polyethylene and nylon exhibit substantial necking, stretching to several times their original length before failure. This phenomenon indicates high ductility, meaning the material can undergo significant plastic deformation before breaking.
Q5: Why do materials with higher Young's modulus require more force to deform?
Young's modulus measures a material's stiffness in the elastic region of the stress-strain curve. Materials with higher Young's moduli, like PVC and acrylic, resist deformation more strongly, requiring greater force to produce the same amount of strain. These stiffer materials typically undergo little plastic deformation and are more brittle compared to materials with lower Young's moduli.
Q6: What precautions ensure accurate results when performing a tensile test on polymers?
Secure at least 80 percent of each specimen end in the grips to prevent slippage during loading. Use sandpaper to improve gripping if needed. Measure specimen dimensions at multiple locations to determine average cross-sectional area. Attach the extensometer securely and measure gauge length between grips. Monitor the load-displacement graph throughout testing to detect any slipping.
Q7: How do elastomers differ from plastics in their mechanical properties and applications?
Elastomers are long, coiled polymer chains that stretch to twice their original length but return to original size when released, unlike plastics which undergo permanent deformation. Elastomers are electrically non-conductive and extremely waterproof, making them ideal for applications like electrical insulative wires and laboratory gloves. Their unique stretch ratio and waterproof properties distinguish them from rigid or semi-rigid plastics. For advanced polymer testing, explore tension test of fiber reinforced polymeric materials to see how reinforcement affects mechanical performance.