Name: bladder structure and urine storage
Uploaded: 2024-12-20T14:49:32.000Z
Duration: 1 min 23 s
Channel: JoVE

K12 Standards

ohios-learning-standards-and-model-curriculum

Ohio’s Learning Standards and Model Curriculum

9-12

Human Anatomy and Physiology

Absorption And Excretion

Urinary System

Urinary Bladder

The urinary bladder is a hollow, muscular sac that temporarily stores about 600 mL of urine before micturition.&#160;
It is retroperitoneally situated on the pelvic floor behind the pubic symphysis. In males, it is positioned directly in front of the rectum, but in females, it is located in front of the vagina and below the uterus.
In the bladder floor, a small inverted triangular area called the trigone is formed by the two ureteric orifices and the internal urethral orifice, which opens into the urethra.
The bladder wall has three histological layers &#8212; the mucosa, muscularis, and adventitia.
The innermost mucosa consists of specialized folds of transitional epithelium called rugae. The mucosa permits the bladder to stretch as it fills with urine without leakage during storage.
The muscularis layer is made of a circular layer of smooth muscle fibers sandwiched between the inner and outer longitudinal layers. This forms the detrusor muscle, which regulates bladder volume.
The outermost adventitia is continuous with the ureters and is present on the posterior and inferior surfaces not covered by the peritoneum.

urinary bladder

The urinary bladder is a hollow, muscular sac that temporarily stores urine before it is expelled from the body. It can hold approximately 600 mL of urine prior to micturition. The bladder is retroperitoneal and located behind the pubic symphysis in the pelvic floor.
In males, the bladder is situated in front of the rectum, while in females, it is positioned anterior to the vagina and uterus. The bladder floor contains an inverted triangular area called the trigone, defined by the two ureteric orifices and the internal urethral orifice, which leads to the urethra.
The bladder wall consists of three histological layers: the mucosa, muscularis, and adventitia.
<ol style="list-style-type: circle;">
	<li>The innermost mucosa features folds called rugae and is composed of transitional epithelium or urothelium. This specialized tissue allows the bladder to stretch as it fills with urine while maintaining a watertight barrier.</li>
	<li>The muscularis layer is made up of a circular layer of smooth muscle fibers sandwiched between inner and outer longitudinal layers, collectively forming the detrusor muscle. This muscle plays a crucial role in regulating bladder volume and enabling the expulsion of urine.</li>
	<li>The outermost adventitia is continuous with the ureters and covers the posterior and inferior surfaces of the bladder. On the superior surface, the bladder is covered by the peritoneum.</li>
</ol>

The urinary bladder is a hollow, muscular sac that temporarily stores about 600 mL of urine before micturition.&#160;
It is retroperitoneally situated on ...

Education

JoVE Core

Anatomy and Physiology

Unit 1

The Urinary System

KEY TERMS AND CONCEPTS

bladder structure and urine storage

The urinary bladder is a hollow, muscular sac that stores urine before it leaves the body. It can hold about 600 mL of urine before micturition, or urination. The bladder sits behind the pubic symphysis in the pelvic floor and is retroperitoneal, meaning it lies behind the lining of the abdominal cavity.

Its position changes slightly by sex. In males, the bladder lies in front of the rectum. In females, it is located anterior to the vagina and uterus.

The bottom of the bladder has a triangular area called the trigone. This area is shaped by the two ureteric orifices and the internal urethral orifice, which leads into the urethra. The bladder wall is built in three layers: the mucosa, the muscularis, and the adventitia.

The inner mucosa has folds called rugae and is lined by transitional epithelium, also called urothelium. This tissue lets the bladder stretch as it fills with urine while still forming a watertight barrier. The muscularis contains smooth muscle arranged in inner and outer longitudinal layers with a middle circular layer. Together, these layers form the detrusor muscle, which helps control bladder volume and push urine out.

The outer adventitia covers the posterior and inferior surfaces of the bladder and continues with the ureters. The superior surface is covered by the peritoneum. These layers work together to support storage and release of urine.

Bladder Structure and Urine Storage

introduction to urinary system

Urinary System: Organs and Key Functions

The urinary system includes two kidneys, two ureters, the urinary bladder, and the urethra. Together, these organs remove wastes from the blood and help keep body conditions stable. The kidneys are bean-shaped and sit in the retroperitoneal space on either side of the vertebral column, between T12 and L3. They are partly protected by the rib cage and cushioned by perirenal fat. The kidneys make urine and also help control blood pressure, electrolyte levels, and hormone production. Each ureter...

external anatomy of the kidney

Kidney Structure, Position, and Coverings

The kidneys are a pair of bean-shaped organs that help keep the body healthy. They filter waste from the blood, help regulate blood pressure, maintain electrolyte balance, and support red blood cell production. The kidneys sit in the retroperitoneal space, which means behind the abdominal lining, on either side of the vertebral column. The 11th and 12th ribs protect them from behind. The right kidney lies slightly lower than the left because the liver is above it. In adults, the kidneys are...

internal anatomy of the kidney

Kidney Cortex, Medulla, and Pelvis

The kidney is a vital organ that helps maintain homeostasis and overall health. It sits against the posterior abdominal wall, behind the abdominal cavity on either side of the spine. The kidneys are retroperitoneal organs. They are found roughly between the twelfth thoracic vertebra and the third lumbar vertebra, and each one is usually 10-12 cm long, 5-6 cm wide, 3-4 cm thick, and about 150 grams. The outer region of the kidney is the renal cortex. It is a light-colored layer that surrounds...

blood and nerve supply to the kidney

Kidney Blood Vessels and Nerve Control

The kidneys rely on a strong network of blood vessels and nerves to filter blood and keep body fluids balanced. They remove waste, regulate electrolytes, and depend on steady circulation to do this work. Their nerve supply also helps control filtration, urine flow, and blood pressure. Blood reaches each kidney through the renal arteries, which branch off the abdominal aorta. These arteries enter the kidney at the hilum, the notch on the medial side of each kidney. Inside the kidney, each renal...

nephrons

Kidney Nephron Structure and Function

Kidneys contain millions of nephrons, the working units that filter blood and form urine. Each nephron has two main parts. The renal corpuscle filters blood plasma, and the renal tubule processes the glomerular filtrate. The renal corpuscle is made of the glomerulus and Bowman&amp;#39;s capsule. The glomerulus is a capillary network, and Bowman&amp;#39;s capsule is a double-walled epithelial structure around it. Blood plasma is filtered in Bowman&amp;#39;s capsule, and the filtered fluid then...

renal corpuscle

Kidney Filtration in the Renal Corpuscle

The renal corpuscle begins kidney filtration in the nephron. It includes the glomerulus and Bowman’s capsule, two microscopic structures that work together to help make urine. The glomerulus filters blood, and Bowman’s capsule collects the fluid that passes through. The glomerulus is a tiny tuft of capillaries at the start of the nephron. It sits inside Bowman’s capsule and gets blood from an afferent arteriole. Blood leaves through an efferent arteriole. This setup is unusual because the...

renal tubule and collecting duct

How Nephrons Reclaim Water and Salts

The renal tubule reclaims useful substances and helps the body manage water, salts, and pH. It has three main parts: the proximal convoluted tubule, the Loop of Henle, and the distal convoluted tubule. These segments work with the collecting duct to form urine and keep internal conditions stable. The proximal convoluted tubule, or PCT, is the first segment and extends from Bowman’s capsule around the glomerulus. Its coiled shape and microvilli, which are tiny membrane folds, increase surface...

physiology of urine formation

How the Kidneys Make Urine

The kidneys make urine through a careful process that helps keep body fluids stable. This process supports homeostasis, which means the body keeps its internal conditions balanced. The kidneys remove wastes and extra substances from the blood and turn them into urine. The first stage is glomerular filtration. Each kidney has about 1 million nephrons, which are the functional units that filter blood. At the center of each nephron is the glomerulus, a network of tiny capillaries where filtration...

glomerular filtration

Selective Kidney Filtration Membrane

The selective kidney filtration membrane filters blood in the renal system. It is made of glomerular capillaries and podocytes. Together, these structures form a barrier that lets water and small solutes pass while keeping most plasma proteins and blood cells in the bloodstream. The filtration process depends on three layers. The first is the glomerular endothelial cells, which line the capillaries. These cells have large pores called fenestrations. The fenestrations let blood plasma solutes...

glomerular filtration: net filtration pressure

glomerular-filtration-net-filtration-pressure

Kidney Filtration Forces in the Glomerulus

Kidney filtration in the glomerulus depends on the balance of three pressures. These forces control how much blood plasma moves from the glomerulus into the capsular space. The process is driven by glomerular blood hydrostatic pressure, or GBHP, and opposed by capsular hydrostatic pressure, or CHP, and blood colloid osmotic pressure, or BCOP. GBHP is the pressure of blood inside the glomerular capillaries. It averages about 55 mmHg and pushes water and dissolved solutes through the filtration...

glomerular filtration rate and its regulation

glomerular-filtration-rate-and-its-regulation

How Kidneys Keep GFR Stable

Glomerular filtration rate, or GFR, is a key measure of kidney function. It shows how much filtrate the kidneys form each minute. Average GFR is about 125 mL/min in males and 105 mL/min in females. Keeping GFR steady helps the kidneys control body fluid balance and maintain extracellular stability. The body uses intrinsic controls first. These include the myogenic mechanism and tubuloglomerular feedback. The myogenic mechanism responds to changes in systemic blood pressure. When blood...

tubular reabsorption and secretion

Kidney Tubule Transport in the Nephron

Kidney tubule transport in the nephron changes the fluid that leaves the glomerulus. Once this fluid enters the proximal convoluted tubule, it is called filtrate. Its composition shifts as the tubule reabsorbs useful substances and secretes unwanted ones. Tubular reabsorption is a selective process that begins in the proximal tubules. Substances can move by the transcellular route, which passes through the tubule cell and into the peritubular capillaries, or by the paracellular route, which...

reabsorption and secretion in the pct

PCT Transport of Glucose, Water, and Ions

The proximal convoluted tubule, or PCT, is a major site where filtered water, ions, glucose, and amino acids are moved back into the body. It works in the kidney’s filtration system after the glomeruli produce the filtered fluid. Most of the filtered water and many solutes are reabsorbed here. Sodium ion transport drives much of this reabsorption. The PCT uses symport, which moves substances in the same direction, and antiport, which moves substances in opposite directions. One key example is...

reabsorption and secretion in the loop of henle

reabsorption-and-secretion-in-the-loop-of-henle

Ion Movement in the Loop of Henle

The loop of Henle controls ion movement in the nephron. In the thick ascending limb, cells use Na+–K+–2Cl− symporters on the apical membrane to take up one sodium ion, one potassium ion, and two chloride ions from the tubular fluid. After entry into the cell, sodium ions are pumped into the interstitial fluid at the base and sides of the cell. They then diffuse into the vasa recta, the tiny blood vessels that help carry substances away. Chloride ions leave through leakage channels in the...

reabsorption and secretion in the dct and collecting duct

reabsorption-and-secretion-in-the-dct-and-collecting-duct

How ADH Changes Kidney Water Reabsorption

The early distal convoluted tubule, or DCT, reabsorbs water and salts as filtrate moves through the kidney. It handles about 10 to 15% of filtered water and about 5 to 10% of filtered sodium and chloride. This part of the tubule uses Na+-Cl- symporters on the apical membrane, sodium-potassium pumps, and chloride leakage channels on the basolateral membrane. The early DCT is also a place where parathyroid hormone, or PTH, can increase calcium reabsorption when the body needs it. Farther along,...

urine: physical and chemical properties

Urine Color, Smell, and pH

Urine is mostly water, but its color, smell, pH, and specific gravity can reveal useful health clues. It is about 95% water and 5% solutes. The main solute is urea, which forms when amino acids are broken down. Other important waste products include uric acid, from nucleic acid metabolism, and creatinine, from creatine phosphate breakdown in skeletal muscle tissue. Urine also contains many dissolved ions and small molecules. These include sodium, chloride, potassium, phosphate, sulfate,...

formation of dilute urine

How Kidneys Excrete Excess Water

The kidneys excrete excess water by making dilute urine, especially during high fluid intake. This process depends mainly on juxtamedullary nephrons, which help the body keep fluid balance by adjusting how much water and ions stay in the filtrate. As filtrate moves through the proximal convoluted tubule (PCT), its osmolarity stays isosmotic with the renal cortex. Osmolarity means the concentration of dissolved particles in a fluid. In the PCT, water and solutes are reabsorbed together, so the...

formation of concentrated urine

Kidney Loop Mechanisms for Urine Concentration

Kidney loop mechanisms help the body conserve water by making urine more concentrated. A steep solute gradient forms in the kidney medulla, the inner region of the kidney. This medullary osmotic gradient runs from the renal cortex down through the medulla. Juxtamedullary nephrons build and maintain this gradient. Their loops extend deep into the medulla, where countercurrent mechanisms work. Countercurrent multiplication happens when the descending and ascending limbs of the nephron loop...

renal clearance

Measuring Kidney Function with Clearance

Kidney function can be measured by looking at glomerular filtration rate, or GFR. GFR shows how efficiently the glomeruli filter blood. Renal clearance is one common way to estimate this rate using substances such as inulin or creatinine. Renal clearance means the volume of plasma that is cleared of a specific substance in a set time. To measure it, urine is collected during each bladder voiding over a 24-hour period. A single blood sample is taken at the end of that interval. The clearance...

ureters

Urine Flow Through the Ureters

The ureters are retroperitoneal tubes that carry urine from each kidney to the urinary bladder. They lie on either side of the vertebral column. These tubes have thick walls and are about 25 to 30 cm long. At the renal pelvis, the ureter is about 10 mm wide. It then narrows to about 1 mm as it enters the back wall of the bladder at an angle. The ureteric orifices are slit-like, and this shape helps prevent urine from flowing backward toward the kidneys when the bladder contracts. Each ureter...

The urinary bladder is a hollow, muscular sac that stores urine before it leaves the body. It can hold about 600 mL of urine before micturition, or urination. The bladder sits behind the pubic symphysis in the pelvic floor and is retroperitoneal, meaning it lies behind the lining of the abdominal cavity. Its position changes slightly by sex. In males, the bladder lies in front of the rectum. In females, it is located anterior to the vagina and uterus. The bottom of the bladder has a...

the micturition reflex

Bladder Filling and Urine Release

Urination depends on the bladder, its detrusor muscle, and two sphincters working together. The detrusor muscle is the smooth muscle in the bladder wall. The two sphincters help keep urine in the bladder until it is time to empty it. As urine builds up, the bladder wall stretches. That stretch activates the urine storage reflex. This reflex is controlled by the sacral spinal segments and the pontine storage center. During storage, sympathetic signals make the detrusor muscle relax and the...

urethra

Urine Flow Through the Urethra

The urethra is the tube that carries urine out of the body. It runs from the bladder to the external opening, where urine leaves the urinary system. Its main job is to release urine, but its structure and role are not the same in males and females. In females, the urethra is short. It measures about 3–4 cm and opens in front of the vaginal opening. In males, the urethra is longer and passes through the penis. It has two jobs in males. It carries urine and also helps eject semen. The male...

dialysis

Dialysis for Kidney Failure Support

Dialysis helps support people with renal failure when the kidneys can no longer filter waste from the blood well. Renal failure can be acute renal failure (ARF), which begins suddenly, or chronic renal failure (CRF), which develops slowly over time. Acute kidney injury may come from pre-renal causes such as hypovolemia or shock, intrinsic renal causes such as acute tubular necrosis, or post-renal causes such as urinary obstruction. Chronic renal failure is often linked to diabetes mellitus and...

disorders of the urinary system

Common Urinary Tract Problems and Their Effects

The urinary system removes waste and extra fluid from the body. Several urinary tract problems can disrupt this process. These problems may result from infections, stress, age, congenital abnormalities, or lifestyle factors. Urinary tract infections, or UTIs, are among the most common disorders. Bacteria enter the urethra and may spread to the bladder, causing cystitis. If the infection moves up to the renal pelvis, it becomes pyelonephritis. UTIs are usually treated with antibiotics, but...

key terms and concepts

Learn how the urinary bladder stores urine, stretches with filling, and releases it through the trigone, urothelium, and detrusor muscle.

Bladder Structure and Urine Storage | JoVE K12

anatomy and physiology

JoVE Core Anatomy and Physiology showcases the anatomical and physiological details of the human body in comprehensive, clear, and engaging video animations. This collection of lessons focuses on the structures, components, functions, and requirements of the human body. It is complemented by scientist-in-action videos that demonstrate the application of this knowledge in real-world medical and research settings.

Florida Department of Education

High School

Life Science

SC.912.L.14

SC.912.L.14.48

Major Organs of the Digestive System

The human digestive system consists of two major parts: the gastrointestinal &#8212; GI &#8212; tract and the accessory organs.
The GI tract begins with ...

Peritoneum

The peritoneum is the body&#39;s largest serous membrane enveloping the abdominal cavity.
It has two portions &#8212; the parietal and visceral peritoneum ...

histology-of-the-gastrointestinal-gi-tract

Histology of the Gastrointestinal (GI) Tract

The gastrointestinal tract has four tissue layers.
The innermost layer, mucosa, is characterized as a mucous membrane. It consists of an epithelium, ...

Nerve Supply of the GI Tract

The gastrointestinal tract has its own intrinsic set of nerves forming the enteric nervous system or ENS,&#160; which is partly controlled by the ...

Regulation of the Digestive System

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Various receptors located within ...

Blood Supply to the Digestive System

Splanchnic circulation refers to the network of blood vessels that supply and drain blood from the abdominal organs involved in digestion, including the ...

Oral Cavity

The oral cavity, or mouth, comprises the lips, cheeks, palate, and tongue.
The walls of the mouth are lined with thick, stratified squamous epithelium, ...

Tongue

The tongue, an accessory digestive organ, forms the floor of the oral cavity and extends into the oropharynx.
It is composed of two types of skeletal ...

Salivary Glands and Saliva

Saliva is composed of 97 to 99.5% water. The remaining proportion includes enzymes such as lipases and amylases, electrolytes, dissolved gasses, IgA, ...

Teeth

Teeth are accessory digestive organs that aid in physically breaking down food.
&#160;The gums, or gingivae, of both the mandible and maxilla hold the ...

Tooth Anatomy

The tooth has a crown and a root connected via a constricted area known as the neck.
The crown is visible above the gingivae and is protected by enamel.
...

Esophagus

The esophagus is a muscular conduit approximately 25 cm long that helps transport food from the mouth to the stomach.
It courses through the mediastinum ...

Deglutition

Deglutition, or swallowing, is a mechanism that transports food from the mouth to the stomach.
This process has three stages &#8212; the buccal, ...

Gross Anatomy of the Stomach

The stomach is a J-shaped organ connecting the esophagus to the duodenal end of the small intestine in the abdominal cavity.
The size and shape of the ...

Stomach Histology

The stomach wall consists of several layers, including the serosa, muscularis externa, submucosa, and mucosa.
The outermost layer, the serosa, is composed ...

Hormones Secreted by the Stomach

The specialized enteroendocrine cells of the gastric glands secrete most of the digestive hormones.
These cells, such as the G, D, and ...

Cephalic Phase of Digestion

Digestion has three overlapping phases &#8212; cephalic, gastric, and intestinal &#8212; based on the location of their control center.
The cephalic phase ...

Gastric Phase of Digestion

Local, neural and hormonal mechanisms trigger the gastric phase after food enters the stomach, lasting approximately 3-4 hours.
The incoming food bolus ...

Diseases of the Liver and Gallbladder

Prominent liver and gallbladder diseases include cirrhosis, hepatitis, non-alcoholic fatty liver disease or NAFLD, and gallstones.
Cirrhosis is a liver ...

Intestinal Phase of Digestion

After the gastric phase, the chyme from the stomach moves into the small intestine, gradually decreasing the stomach distention.
In contrast, the arrival ...

Pancreas

The pancreas is a pinkish-gray organ located behind the stomach. It extends from the duodenum to the spleen.
It can be divided into a broad head located ...

Mucosal Barrier of the Stomach

In the gastric glands, the parietal cells are involved in hydrochloric acid or HCl formation.
These cells first synthesize carbonic acid, which ...

Pancreatic Juice and Secretion

Pancreatic juice is a colorless liquid composed of water, salts, sodium bicarbonate, and enzymes secreted by the exocrine cells.
During digestion, chyme ...

Gastric Motility

Gastric motility is the coordinated movement of stomach muscles and secretions, which propels food and liquids through the stomach.
As the swallowed food ...

Small Intestine

The small intestine is a tubular structure extending from the pyloric sphincter of the stomach to the ileocecal valve of the large intestine.
This long, ...

Gastric Emptying

Gastric emptying is the gradual release of chyme from the stomach into the duodenum.
Stomach distention triggers the gastroenteric reflex, releasing ...

Histology of the Small Intestine

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Gross Anatomy of the Liver

The liver is the largest gland in the body, weighing approximately 1.4 kg in adults.
It is wedge-shaped and located more in the right hypochondriac and ...

mechanical-and-chemical-digestion-in-the-small-intestine

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The small intestine plays a crucial role in our digestive system, performing both mechanical and chemical digestion.
Mechanical digestion in the small ...

Liver Histology

The liver comprises several histological components, such as hepatocytes, bile canaliculi, and sinusoids.
Hepatocytes are specialized epithelial cells ...

Large Intestine

The large intestine is divided into three main regions: the cecum, colon, and rectum. Extending from the ileocecal valve to the anus, it frames the small ...

Bile

Bile is a yellow-green alkaline liquid secreted by the liver into the right and left hepatic ducts and then into the common hepatic duct. From here, it ...

Histology of the Large Intestine

The large intestine, a vital component of the gastrointestinal tract, is structured with four main layers: the mucosa, submucosa, muscularis, and serosa. ...

Gallbladder

The gallbladder is a muscular sac located in a shallow fossa on the inferior surface of the liver. It measures about 10 cm in length and is roughly the ...

Bacterial Flora of the Large

Intestine

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digestive-functions-of-the-large-intestine

Digestive Functions of the Large Intestine

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Absorption of Nutrients

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These ...

Feces Formation and Defecation

After spending 3 to 10 hours in the large intestine, chyme loses a lot of water and becomes feces, the final product of digestion. Feces consist of ...

Other Disorders of Digestive System

The gastrointestinal tract of the digestive system is susceptible to various disorders.
The incompetence of the lower esophageal sphincter results in the ...

Digestive System

Content elaboration: The digestive system consists of the gastrointestinal tract (alimentary canal) as well as various accessory organs including the teeth, tongue, salivary glands, liver, gallbladder and pancreas. The digestive system processes and supplies the molecules needed to sustain the living tissues within the body through the absorption of nutrients. Six major functions of the digestive system include secretion, ingestion, mechanical processing, enzymatic digestion, absorption and excretion. The lining of the digestive system protects surrounding tissues from the mechanical and enzymatic stresses of the digestive process. Processes of the digestive system include the mechanical and chemical breakdown of food into small molecules which are then absorbed by the digestive tract. Specific actions within the digestive system include mastication, peristalsis, segmentation and the release of hormones and enzymes necessary for digestion. The metabolic functions of the accessory organs play strategic roles in the breakdown of food products, the maintenance of glucose levels within the blood and the regulation of homeostasis in the body. Indigestible material is excreted as waste. Homeostatic imbalances are explored. These include, but are not limited to, conditions such as gallstones, heartburn, ulcers, dehydration, diarrhea, cirrhosis and cancers of the digestive system. Investigations are used to understand and explain the digestive system in a variety of inquiry and design scenarios that can incorporate evolutionary concepts, scientific reasoning, comparative analysis, communication skills and real-world applications.

Digestive System

Overview of Respiratory System

The respiratory system includes both upper and lower respiratory organs.
The upper respiratory organs consist of the nose and nasal cavity, paranasal ...

Nose and Nasal Cavity

The nose is composed of an observable exterior segment (external nose) and an internal segment within the skull known as the nasal cavity (internal nose). ...

Pharynx

The pharynx, a tubular structure framed by skeletal muscle and lined with mucous membrane, extends continuously from the nasal cavities. It is segmented ...

Larynx

The larynx or voice box connects the laryngopharynx with the trachea.
It includes unpaired thyroid cartilage, cricoid cartilage, and the epiglottis, as ...

Respiratory System

Content elaboration: The respiratory system is comprised of the airways, lungs and diaphragm. The airways include the nasal and oral cavities, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles and alveoli. The respiratory system transports and exchanges gases including oxygen and carbon dioxide. Processes involved in the respiratory system include respiration mechanics and gas exchange. Respiration mechanics is the process by which humans breathe and includes the movement of the diaphragm and pressure-volume relationships. Gas exchange refers to the diffusion of gas across the alveolar epithelium in the respiratory system and capillary endothelium of the cardiovascular system. Lung volumes and capacities can be measured using spirometry. Homeostatic imbalances are explored. These include, but are not limited to, asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), tuberculosis, cystic fibrosis and the effects of smoking and pollution. Investigations are used to understand and explain the respiratory system in a variety of inquiry and design scenarios that can incorporate evolutionary concepts, scientific reasoning, comparative analysis, communication skills and real-world applications.

Respiratory System

Bladder Structure and Urine Storage

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