Name: organic molecules in everyday chemistry
Uploaded: 2020-09-03T13:38:26.000Z
Duration: 3 min 2 s
Channel: JoVE

K12 Standards

north-carolina-k-12-science-standard-course-of-study

NC K-12 Science Standard Course of Study

9-12

Chemistry

Matter and its Interactions

PS.Chm.3.3

Organic Compounds

Los compuestos formados principalmente por átomos de carbono unidos a átomos de hidrógeno, oxígeno, nitrógeno o azufre se denominan compuestos orgánicos. Los compuestos orgánicos forman una gran variedad de moléculas, desde los componentes fundamentales de la vida como el ADN o las paredes celulares de las plantas hasta materiales que liberan energía como los combustibles. Por lo general, se descomponen fácilmente.Los átomos de carbono constituyen la columna vertebral de cada compuesto orgánico, que puede asumir diversas estructuras con arreglos de cadena lineal, ramificada y en forma de anillo debido a la versatilidad del carbono para formar cuatro enlaces, ya sea enlaces simples, dobles o triples. Los compuestos orgánicos pueden ser hidrocarburos o hidrocarburos funcionales. Los hidrocarburos están constituidos enteramente por átomos de carbono e hidrógeno.Los alcanos son hidrocarburos que contienen enlaces simples. Los alquenos contienen uno o más enlaces dobles, mientras que los alquinos contienen uno o más enlaces triples. La nomenclatura de hidrocarburos sigue un patrón en el que el nombre de la base se menciona primero usando un prefijo determinado por el número de átomos de carbono.El nombre termina con el sufijo ano, eno o ino dependiendo de la presencia de enlaces simples, dobles o triples, respectivamente. Por ejemplo, el alcano que contiene un enlace sencillo con tres átomos de carbono es el propano. El alqueno que contiene un enlace doble con tres carbonos es el propeno, mientras que un alquino que contiene un enlace triple con tres átomos de carbono es el propino.Los hidrocarburos con uno o más de sus átomos de hidrógeno sustituidos por un grupo específico de átomos o grupos funcionales se denominan hidrocarburos funcionalizados. Los hidrocarburos funcionales son generalmente designados como la porción de hidrocarburos por la letra R'y el grupo funcional específico. Los grupos funcionales pueden ser de muchos tipos y tener propiedades físicas y químicas específicas.Todos los compuestos orgánicos que llevan un grupo funcional común pertenecen a la misma familia de hidrocarburos, exhiben propiedades similares y siguen una nomenclatura similar. Por ejemplo, todos los compuestos orgánicos que llevan un grupo funcional OH se denominan alcoholes. La nomenclatura menciona el nombre base del alcano parental que termina con el sufijo ol, específico del grupo funcional del alcohol.Por tanto, el propano que tiene un grupo funcional OH se denomina propanol. Por el contrario, todos los compuestos orgánicos que llevan grupos funcionales carboxilo se denominan ácidos carboxílicos. La nomenclatura establece el nombre de la base del alcano parental que termina con el sufijo ácido oico, exclusivo del grupo funcional carboxilo.Por lo tanto, el propano con un grupo funcional carboxilo se denomina ácido propanoico.

compuestos orgánicos

Todos los seres vivos están formados principalmente de compuestos de carbono llamados compuestos orgánicos. La categoría de compuestos orgánicos incluye compuestos naturales y sintéticos que contienen carbono. Aunque la comunidad química aún no ha identificado una definición única y precisa, la mayoría están de acuerdo en que un rasgo definitorio de las moléculas orgánicas es la presencia de carbono como elemento principal, unido al hidrógeno y a otros átomos de carbono. Sin embargo, algunos compuestos que contienen carbono como los carbonatos, cianuros y óxidos simples (CO y CO2) no se clasifican como compuestos orgánicos. 
 
 Los compuestos orgánicos son componentes clave de plásticos, jabones, perfumes, edulcorantes, tejidos, productos farmacéuticos y muchas otras sustancias usadas diariamente. Los compuestos orgánicos incluyen compuestos provenientes de organismos vivos y aquellos sintetizados por químicos. La existencia de una amplia gama de moléculas orgánicas es una consecuencia de la capacidad de los átomos de carbono para formar hasta cuatro enlaces fuertes con otros átomos de carbono, lo que resulta en cadenas y anillos de muchos tamaños, formas y complejidades diferentes. 
 
 <h4>Hidrocarburos</h4>
 
 Los compuestos orgánicos más simples contienen sólo los elementos carbono e hidrógeno y se llaman hidrocarburos. Los hidrocarburos pueden diferir en los tipos de enlaces carbono-carbono presentes en sus moléculas. Los que contienen solamente enlaces simples se llaman alcanos, mientras que los que contienen enlaces dobles o triples son alquenos y alquinos, respectivamente. Aunque todos los hidrocarburos están compuestos de sólo dos tipos de átomos (carbono e hidrógeno), hay una amplia variedad de hidrocarburos porque pueden consistir en cadenas de longitudes variables, cadenas ramificadas y anillos de átomos de carbono, o combinaciones de estas estructuras.
 
 <table style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">
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 <td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;">Butano (C4H10) </td>
 <td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;">Isobutano (C4H10) </td>
 <td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;">Ciclobutano (C4H8) </td>
 </tr>
 </tbody>
 </table>
 
  
 
 Los hidrocarburos se utilizan todos los días, principalmente como combustibles, como el gas natural, acetileno, propano, butano y los principales componentes de la gasolina, el gasóleo y el aceite para calefacción. Los alcanos, o hidrocarburos saturados, contienen solamente enlaces covalentes simples entre sus átomos de carbono. Las propiedades tales como el punto de fusión y el punto de ebullición generalmente cambian predeciblemente a medida que cambia el número de átomos de carbono e hidrógeno en las moléculas. 
 
 Para nombrar un alcano simple, primero identifique el nombre base dependiendo del número de átomos de carbono en la cadena (met = 1, et = 2, prop = 3, but = 4, pent = 5, hex = 6, hept = 7, oct = 8, non = 9 y dec = 10). El nombre de la base va seguido de un sufijo, determinado por si el hidrocarburo es un alcano (-ano ), alqueno (-eno ) o alquino (-ino ). Por ejemplo, un alcano de dos carbonos se llama etano; un alcano de tres carbonos se llama propano; y un alcano de cuatro carbonos se llama butano. Las cadenas más largas se denominan de la siguiente forma: Pentano (cadena de 5 carbonos), hexano (6), heptano (7), octano (8), nonano (9), y decano (10). 
 
 Los alquenos y los alquinos son hidrocarburos no saturados que contienen enlaces dobles y triples, respectivamente, entre al menos dos átomos de carbono. Su nomenclatura sigue los mismos pasos que la de los alcanos: Nombre base + sufijo. Por ejemplo, una cadena de alqueno de dos carbonos se llama eteno, y un alquino de dos carbonos se llama etino; un alqueno de tres carbonos se llama propeno, y un alquino de tres carbonos se llama propino, y así sucesivamente. 
 
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 <td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;">Etano (C2H6) </td>
 <td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;">Eteno (C2H4)  </td>
 <td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;">Etino (C2H2) </td>
 </tr>
 </tbody>
 </table>
 
 <h4>Hidrocarburos Funcionalizados</h4>
 
 La incorporación de un grupo funcional en moléculas que contienen carbono e hidrógeno conduce a nuevas familias de compuestos llamados hidrocarburos funcionalizados. El grupo funcional es un átomo o grupo de átomos característicos que determina principalmente las propiedades de los derivados de hidrocarburos. 
 
 Un tipo de grupo funcional es el grupo –OH. Los compuestos que tienen un grupo funcional –OH son alcoholes. El nombre del alcohol proviene del hidrocarburo del que se deriva. Por convención, la porción de hidrocarburo de la molécula se designa como 'R'; por lo tanto, la fórmula general de un alcohol es R–OH. La ‘–o’ final en el nombre del hidrocarburo se sustituirá por ‘–ol’. En el caso de un alcohol ramificado, el átomo de carbono al que se une el grupo –OH se indica mediante un número situado antes del nombre. A continuación se enumeran otros grupos funcionales comunes. Un grupo de compuestos que contienen el mismo grupo funcional forman una familia.
 
 <table style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;">
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 <td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;">Familia</td>
 <td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;">Grupo funcional</td>
 <td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;">Ejemplo</td>
 <td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;">Fórmula</td>
 <td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;">Nombre</td>
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 <td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;">Alcoholes</td>
 <td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;"><img alt="Eq3" src="https://www.jovecore.com/CDNSource/lessons/1290/1290_Image 3.svg" style="height: 15px;" /></td>
 <td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;"><img alt="Eq4" src="https://www.jovecore.com/CDNSource/lessons/1290/1290_Image 4.svg" style="height: 75px;" /></td>
 <td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;">C 3H8O</td>
 <td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;">Propanol</td>
 </tr>
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 <td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;">Éteres</td>
 <td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;"><img alt="Eq5" src="https://www.jovecore.com/CDNSource/lessons/1290/1290_Image 5.svg" style="height: 15px;" /></td>
 <td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;"><img alt="Eq6" src="https://www.jovecore.com/CDNSource/lessons/1290/1290_Image 6.svg" style="height: 75px;" /></td>
 <td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;">C2H6O</td>
 <td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;">Éter dimetilo </td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;">Aldehídos</td>
 <td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;"><img alt="Eq7" src="https://www.jovecore.com/CDNSource/lessons/1290/1290_image 7.svg" style="height: 45px;" /></td>
 <td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;"><img alt="Eq8" src="https://www.jovecore.com/CDNSource/lessons/1290/1290_Image 8.svg" style="height: 75px;" /></td>
 <td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;">C3H6O</td>
 <td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;">Propanol</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;">Cetonas</td>
 <td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;"><img alt="Eq9" src="https://www.jovecore.com/CDNSource/lessons/1290/1290_Image 9.svg" style="height: 45px;" /></td>
 <td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;"><img alt="Eq10" src="https://www.jovecore.com/CDNSource/lessons/1290/1290_Image 10.svg" style="height: 75px;" /></td>
 <td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;">C3H6O</td>
 <td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;">Propanona (acetona)</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;">Ácidos carboxílicos</td>
 <td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;"><img alt="Eq11" src="https://www.jovecore.com/CDNSource/lessons/1290/1290_Image 11.svg" style="height: 45px;" /></td>
 <td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;"><img alt="Eq12" src="https://www.jovecore.com/CDNSource/lessons/1290/1290_Image 12.svg" style="height: 75px;" /></td>
 <td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;">C3H6O2</td>
 <td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;">Ácido propanoico</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;">Ésteres</td>
 <td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;"><img alt="Eq13" src="https://www.jovecore.com/CDNSource/lessons/1290/1290_Image 13.svg" style="height: 45px;" /></td>
 <td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;"><img alt="Eq14" src="https://www.jovecore.com/CDNSource/lessons/1290/1290_Image 14.svg" style="height: 75px;" /></td>
 <td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;">C4H8O2</td>
 <td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;">Acetato de etilo</td>
 </tr>
 <tr>
 <td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;">Aminas</td>
 <td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;"><img alt="Eq15" src="https://www.jovecore.com/CDNSource/lessons/1290/1290_Image 15.svg" style="height: 17px;" /></td>
 <td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;"><img alt="Eq16" src="https://www.jovecore.com/CDNSource/lessons/1290/1290_Image 16.svg" style="height: 75px;" /></td>
 <td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;">C3H9N</td>
 <td style="color: black; border: 1px solid black; text-align: center;">Propilamina</td>
 </tr>
 </tbody>
 </table>
 
  
 
 Los éteres son compuestos que contienen el grupo funcional –O–, con la fórmula general R–O–R’.  
 
 Otra clase de moléculas orgánicas contienen un átomo de carbono unido a un átomo de oxígeno por un enlace doble, comúnmente llamado grupo carbonilo. El carbono en el grupo carbonilo puede unirse a otros dos sustituyentes que conducen a varias subfamilias (aldehídos, cetonas, ácidos carboxílicos y ésteres). 
 
 Los grupos funcionales relacionados con el grupo carbonilo incluyen el grupo –CHO de un aldehído, el grupo –CO– de una cetona, el grupo –CO2H de un ácido carboxílico y el grupo –CO2R de un éster. El grupo carbonilo, un enlace doble carbono-oxígeno, es la estructura clave en esta clase de moléculas orgánicas. Los aldehídos contienen al menos un átomo de hidrógeno unido al átomo de carbono carbonilo, las cetonas contienen dos grupos de carbono unidos al átomo de carbono carbonilo, los ácidos carboxílicos contienen un grupo hidroxilo unido al átomo de carbono carbonilo, y los ésteres contienen un átomo de oxígeno unido a otro grupo de carbono conectado al átomo de carbono carbonilo. Todos estos compuestos contienen átomos de carbono oxidados en relación con el átomo de carbono de un grupo de alcohol.
 
 La adición de nitrógeno en un marco orgánico conduce a dos familias de moléculas, a saber, aminas y amidas. Los compuestos que contienen un átomo de nitrógeno unido en un marco de hidrocarburos se clasifican como aminas. Los compuestos que tienen un átomo de nitrógeno unido a un lado de un grupo carbonilo se clasifican como amidas. Las aminas son un grupo funcional básico. Las aminas y los ácidos carboxílicos pueden combinarse en una reacción de condensación para formar amidas.
 
 Este texto ha sido adaptado de <a href="https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-2e/pages/20-introduction">Openstax, Química 2e, Sección 20: Introducción, Openstax, Química 2e, Sección 20.1: Hidrocarburos, Openstax, Química 2e, Sección 20.2: Alcoholes y éteres, Openstax, Química 2e, Sección 20,2: Aldehídos, Cetonas, Ácidos carboxílicos, y Ésteres,</a> y <a href="https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-2e/pages/20-4-amines-and-amides">Openstax, Química 2e, Sección 20.2: Aminas y amidas</a>.

Compuestos Orgánicos

Todos los seres vivos están formados principalmente por compuestos de carbono llamados compuestos orgánicos. La categoría de compuestos orgánicos incluye tanto los compuestos naturales como los sintéticos ...

Education

Educación

JoVE Core

Química

Molecules, Compounds, and Chemical Equations

Moléculas, compuestos y ecuaciones químicas

molecules-compounds-and-chemical-equations

KEY TERMS AND CONCEPTS

TÉRMINOS Y CONCEPTOS CLAVE

organic molecules in everyday chemistry

Organic molecules are carbon-based compounds found in living things and in many everyday products. Most organic compounds have carbon as the main element, bonded to hydrogen and other carbon atoms. Some carbon-containing substances, such as carbonates, cyanides, and simple oxides like CO and CO2, are not classified as organic.

Carbon can form up to four strong bonds, which helps explain why organic compounds can make chains and rings of many sizes and shapes. These molecules appear in plastics, soaps, perfumes, sweeteners, fabrics, pharmaceuticals, and many other materials used daily. Organic compounds may come from living organisms, or they may be made by chemists.

The simplest organic compounds are hydrocarbons, which contain only carbon and hydrogen. Hydrocarbons can have only single bonds, only double bonds, or only triple bonds. Those with single bonds are called alkanes, while those with double or triple bonds are called alkenes and alkynes.

Hydrocarbons vary because their carbon atoms can form straight chains, branched chains, rings, or combinations of these structures. Examples include butane, isobutane, and cyclobutane. Hydrocarbons are widely used as fuels, including natural gas, acetylene, propane, butane, and the main components of gasoline, diesel fuel, and heating oil.

Alkanes are saturated hydrocarbons because they contain only single covalent bonds between carbon atoms. Their melting point and boiling point usually change in a regular way as the number of carbon and hydrogen atoms changes. Simple alkane names use a prefix based on the number of carbon atoms, such as meth, eth, prop, but, pent, hex, hept, oct, non, and dec, followed by the ending -ane.

This naming pattern also helps identify alkenes and alkynes. The suffix changes to -ene for alkenes and -yne for alkynes. A two-carbon alkane is ethane, a three-carbon alkane is propane, and a four-carbon alkane is butane. The matching alkene and alkyne names are ethene and ethyne, then propene and propyne.

Adding a functional group to a hydrocarbon creates a functionalized hydrocarbon. A functional group is a specific atom or group of atoms that largely controls the properties of the compound. One common example is the -OH group, which makes a molecule an alcohol. Alcohol names come from the hydrocarbon name, with the final -e changed to -ol, and a branched alcohol may need a number to show where the -OH group is attached.

Other families of functionalized hydrocarbons include ethers, aldehydes, ketones, carboxylic acids, esters, amines, and amides. Ethers contain an -O- group and have the general formula R-O-R'. Carbonyl compounds contain a carbon-oxygen double bond. In aldehydes, the carbonyl carbon has at least one hydrogen attached. In ketones, it has two carbon groups attached. In carboxylic acids, a hydroxyl group is attached to the carbonyl carbon. In esters, an oxygen atom is attached to another carbon group connected to the carbonyl carbon.

These carbonyl families all have carbon atoms that are more oxidized than the carbon atom in an alcohol group. Nitrogen can also be part of organic molecules. Compounds with nitrogen in a hydrocarbon framework are called amines, and compounds with nitrogen on one side of a carbonyl group are called amides. Amines are basic, and amines can react with carboxylic acids in a condensation reaction to form amides.

Organic Molecules in Everyday Chemistry

molecules and compounds

Atomic Elements, Molecules, and Bonds

Matter is made of elements, and elements are built from atoms. An atom is the smallest unit of an element that still keeps that element’s properties. A silver coin, for example, is made of silver atoms. Each atom keeps the unique properties of silver. Elements are pure substances made of identical atoms. They cannot be broken down into simpler substances by chemical changes. Most elements are atomic elements, which use single atoms as their basic unit. Carbon and sodium are examples of atomic...

molecular models

Molecular Model Types in Chemistry

Molecular models help chemists and students visualize the structures and shapes of atoms and molecules. They represent the molecular architecture of chemical compounds in a way that is easier to study than formulas alone. Skeletal models are simple two-dimensional drawings of compounds. They show the molecular framework, or the bonds, without drawing every atom. In this model, many carbon and hydrogen atoms are not shown directly. Their positions are implied by the ends and junctions of the...

organic compounds

Organic molecules are carbon-based compounds found in living things and in many everyday products. Most organic compounds have carbon as the main element, bonded to hydrogen and other carbon atoms. Some carbon-containing substances, such as carbonates, cyanides, and simple oxides like CO and CO2, are not classified as organic. Carbon can form up to four strong bonds, which helps explain why organic compounds can make chains and rings of many sizes and shapes. These molecules appear in...

formula mass and mole concepts of compounds

formula-mass-and-mole-concepts-of-compounds

Chemical Formula Mass and Percent Composition

Chemical formula mass and percent composition help describe the makeup of compounds. A chemical formula shows which atoms are present and how many of each atom appear in a substance. For covalent compounds, the formula shows the atoms in one molecule. That is why formula mass can also be called molecular mass. Chloroform, CHCl3, is one example. Its formula shows one carbon atom, one hydrogen atom, and three chlorine atoms. The molecular mass is the sum of their average atomic masses. Ionic...

experimental determination of chemical formula

experimental-determination-of-chemical-formula

Finding Empirical and Molecular Formulas

Chemical formulas show the elemental makeup of a compound. When a formula is unknown, scientists often start by measuring the masses of the elements in the sample. Those mass data are then used to find the simplest whole-number ratio of atoms, which gives the empirical formula. To get from mass to atom ratio, the masses of the elements are first converted to moles using molar masses. Chemical formulas describe numbers of atoms, not masses, so this step is necessary. In one example, 1.71 grams...

chemical equations

Reading Chemical Equations and Balancing Them

Chemical equations show the identities and relative amounts of substances in a chemical reaction. The substances that react are called reactants, and their formulas are written on the left side of the equation. The substances formed are called products, and their formulas are written on the right side. A plus sign (+) separates formulas on the same side, and an arrow (→) shows the change from reactants to products. The numbers in a chemical equation are shown with coefficients. A coefficient...

key terms and concepts

Explore how carbon forms hydrocarbons and functional groups, and learn the names, structures, and uses of key organic molecules in everyday life.

Organic Molecules in Everyday Chemistry | JoVE K12

chemistry

JoVE Core Química da vida a los conceptos de química general mediante lecciones de vídeo basadas en animaciones, concisas y fáciles de entender. Además, en los vídeos de científicos en acción, se muestran experimentos de investigación clásicos y originales realizados en laboratorios de todo el mundo.

PS.Chm.4.3

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Ohio’s Learning Standards and Model Curriculum

Structure And Properties Of Matter

Representing compounds

Minnesota Academic Standards in Science

3.2.2 9C.3.2.1.1

Texas Essential Knowledge and Skills

High School

CHEM.7

CHEM.7.B

CHEM.12

CHEM.12.A

Florida Department of Education

Physical Science

SC.912.P.8

SC.912.P.8.12

Scientific Laws and Theories

Scientific Laws

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The Scientific Method

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Classifying Matter by Composition

Matter: Pure Substances and Mixtures
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The Atomic Theory of Matter

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Subatomic Particles

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Use models to explain how the scientific understanding of atomic structure has evolved.

PS.Chm.1.1

Radioactivity and Nuclear Equations

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Types of Radioactivity

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The difference between the calculated and experimentally measured masses is known as the mass defect of the atom. In the case of helium-4, the mass defect ...

Radioactive Decay and Radiometric Dating

Radioactivity is a spontaneous disintegration of an unstable nuclide and is a random process, as all the nuclei in the sample do not decay simultaneously. ...

Nuclear Fission

Many heavier elements with smaller binding energies per nucleon can decompose into more stable elements that have intermediate mass numbers and larger ...

Nuclear Power

Controlled nuclear fission reactions are used to generate electricity. Any nuclear reactor that produces power via the fission of uranium or plutonium by ...

Nuclear Fusion

The process of converting very light nuclei into heavier nuclei is also accompanied by the conversion of mass into large amounts of energy, a process ...

Nuclear Transmutation

Nuclear transmutation is the conversion of one nuclide into another. It can occur by the radioactive decay of a nucleus, or the reaction of a nucleus with ...

Use models to compare nuclear reactions including alpha decay, beta decay and gamma decay; nuclear fusion and nuclear fission.

PS.Chm.1.2

Atomic Orbitals

An atomic orbital represents the three-dimensional regions in an atom where an electron has the highest probability to reside. The radial distribution ...

The Pauli Exclusion Principle

The arrangement of electrons in the orbitals of an atom is called its electron configuration. We describe an electron configuration with a symbol that ...

The Energies of Atomic Orbitals

In an atom, the negatively charged electrons are attracted to the positively charged nucleus. In a multielectron atom, electron-electron repulsions are ...

The Aufbau Principle and Hund's Rule

To determine the electron configuration for any particular atom, we can build the structures in the order of atomic numbers. Beginning with hydrogen, and ...

electron-configuration-of-multielectron-atoms

Electron Configuration of Multielectron Atoms

The alkali metal sodium (atomic number 11) has one more electron than the neon atom. This electron must go into the lowest-energy subshell available, the ...

Use models to explain how electrons are distributed in atoms.

PS.Chm.1.3

Periodic Classification of the Elements

The periodic table arranges atoms based on increasing atomic number so that elements with the same chemical properties recur periodically. When their ...

The Periodic Table

As early chemists discovered more elements, they realized that various elements could be grouped by their similar chemical behaviors. One such grouping ...

Atomic Mass

Atoms &mdash; and the protons, neutrons, and electrons that compose them &mdash; are extremely small. For example, a carbon atom weighs less than 2 ...

Molar Mass

The identity of a substance is defined not only by the types of atoms or ions it contains but by the quantity of each type of atom or ion. For example, ...

Use the Periodic Table as a model to predict the relative properties of elements based on the pattern of valence electrons in the outermost energy levels of atoms.

PS.Chm.2.1

atomic-radii-and-effective-nuclear-charge

Atomic Radii and Effective Nuclear Charge

The elements in groups of the periodic table exhibit similar chemical behavior. This similarity occurs because the members of a group have the same number ...

Ionic Radii

Ionic radius is the measure used to describe the size of an ion. A cation always has fewer electrons and the same number of protons as the parent atom; it ...

Ionization Energy

The amount of energy required to remove the most loosely bound electron from a gaseous atom in its ground state is called its first ionization energy ...

Electron Affinity

The electron affinity (EA) is the energy change for adding an electron to a gaseous atom to form an anion (negative ion).



This process can be either ...

Construct an explanation to infer the atomic size, reactivity, electronegativity, and ionization energy of an element based on its position in the Periodic Table.

PS.Chm.2.2

Types of Chemical Bonds

Chemical bonding theories were pioneered by American chemist Gilbert&#xA0;N. Lewis. He developed a model called the Lewis model to explain the type and ...

Lewis Symbols and the Octet Rule

Chemical bonds are complex interactions between two or more atoms or ions, which reduce the potential energy of the molecule. Gilbert N. Lewis developed a ...

Ionic Bonding and Electron Transfer

Ions are atoms or molecules bearing an electrical charge. A cation (a positive ion) forms when a neutral atom loses one or more electrons from its valence ...

The Born-Haber Cycle

Lattice Energy&#xA0;

An ionic compound is stable because of the electrostatic attraction between its positive and negative ions. The lattice energy of a ...

trends-in-lattice-energy-ion-size-and-charge

Trends in Lattice Energy: Ion Size and Charge

An ionic compound is stable because of the electrostatic attraction between its positive and negative ions. The lattice energy of a compound is a measure ...

Covalent Bonding and Lewis Structures

Compared to ionic bonds, which results from the transfer of electrons between metallic and nonmetallic atoms, covalent bonds result from the mutual ...

Electronegativity

Whether a bond is nonpolar or polar covalent is determined by a property of the bonding atoms called electronegativity.&#xA0;

Electronegativity values of ...

bond-polarity-dipole-moment-and-percent-ionic-character

Bond Polarity, Dipole Moment, and Percent Ionic Character

Bond Polarity

The absolute value of the difference in electronegativity (&Delta;EN) of two bonded atoms provides a rough measure of the polarity to be ...

lewis-structures-of-molecular-compounds-and-polyatomic-ions

Lewis Structures of Molecular Compounds and Polyatomic Ions

To draw Lewis structures for complicated molecules and molecular ions, it is helpful to follow a step-by-step procedure as outlined:


	Determine the ...

Resonance

The Lewis structure of a nitrite anion (NO2&minus;) may actually be drawn in two different ways, distinguished by the locations of the N-O and N=O ...

Formal Charges

In some cases, there are seemingly more than one valid Lewis structures for molecules and polyatomic ions. The concept of formal charges can be used to ...

Exceptions to the Octet Rule

Many covalent molecules have central atoms that do not have eight electrons in their Lewis structures. These molecules fall into three categories:


	...

Bond Energies and Bond Lengths

Stable molecules exist because covalent bonds hold the atoms together. The strength of a covalent bond is measured by the energy required to break it, ...

Analyze and interpret data to explain the mechanisms and properties of the two main types of intramolecular (ionic and covalent) bonds.

PS.Chm.3.1

molecular-comparison-of-gases-liquids-and-solids

Molecular Comparison of Gases, Liquids, and Solids

Particles in a solid are tightly packed together (fixed shape) and often arranged in a regular pattern; in a liquid, they are close together with no ...

Intermolecular vs Intramolecular Forces

Intermolecular forces (IMF) are electrostatic attractions arising from charge-charge interactions between molecules. The strength of the intermolecular ...

Intermolecular Forces

Atoms and molecules interact through bonds (or forces): intramolecular and intermolecular. The forces are electrostatic as they arise from interactions ...

comparing-intermolecular-forces-melting-point-boiling-point

Comparing Intermolecular Forces: Melting Point, Boiling Point, and Miscibility

Intermolecular forces are attractive forces that exist between molecules. They dictate several bulk properties, such as melting points, boiling points, ...

surface-tension-capillary-action-and-viscosity

Surface Tension, Capillary Action, and Viscosity

Surface Tension
The various IMFs between identical molecules of a substance are examples of cohesive forces. The molecules within a liquid are surrounded ...

Hydrogen Bonds

Hydrogen BondsHydrogen bonds are weak attractions between atoms that have formed other chemical bonds. One of these atoms is electronegative, like oxygen, ...

Van der Waals Interactions

Atoms and molecules interact with each other through intermolecular forces. These electrostatic forces arise from attractive or repulsive interactions ...

Construct an explanation to summarize the influences intermolecular forces have on the properties of chemical compounds.

PS.Chm.3.2

Molecules and Compounds

Atoms and Molecules

Everything in the universe is made up of matter, and matter is composed of a combination of elements. An atom is the smallest unit of ...

Chemical Formulas

A chemical formula presents information about the proportions of atoms constituting a particular chemical compound or molecule, mainly using symbols of ...

Molecular Models

Physical models representing molecular architectures of chemical compounds play essential roles in understanding chemistry. The use of molecular models ...

Classification of Elements and Compounds

Pure substances consist of only one type of matter. A pure substance can be an element or a compound. An element consists of only one type of atom, while ...

ionic-compounds-formulas-and-nomenclature

Ionic Compounds: Formulas and Nomenclature

An element composed of atoms that readily lose electrons (a metal) can react with an element composed of atoms that readily gain electrons (a nonmetal) to ...

molecular-compounds-formulas-and-nomenclature

Molecular Compounds: Formulas and Nomenclature

Molecular compounds or covalent compounds result when atoms share electrons to form covalent bonds. Since there is no electron transfer, molecular ...

Use models to predict chemical names and formulas including ionic (binary & ternary), acidic, and binary covalent compounds.

Analyze the structure of atoms and isotopes.

Organic Molecules in Everyday Chemistry

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