Name: spr biosensors for tracking binding kinetics
Uploaded: 2023-04-30T06:31:51.000Z
Duration: 6 min 58 s
Channel: JoVE

K12 Standards

Next Generation Science Standards

High School

Physical Science

waves-and-their-applications-in-technologies-for-information-transfer

Waves and Their Applications in Technologies for Information Transfer

HS-PS4-5

Surface Plasmon Resonance (SPR)

La resonancia de plasmones de superficie (SPR) es el fenómeno óptico subyacente detrás de los biosensores sin etiquetas para evaluar la afinidad molecular, la cinética, la especificidad y la concentración de las biomoléculas. En SPR, las interacciones biomoleculares ocurren en un biosensor hecho de una capa delgada de metal en un prisma. Las interacciones en tiempo real de las biomoléculas se pueden monitorear midiendo los cambios de luz reflejada en la parte inferior del metal. 
Este video describe los conceptos básicos de SPR y cómo se utiliza para analizar y visualizar interacciones biomoleculares. A esto le sigue una preparación de la muestra y un protocolo experimental para investigar las tasas de unión utilizando SPR. En la sección de aplicaciones, se exploran las imágenes SPR, las SPR localizadas y las SPR mejoradas con puntos cuánticos.

resonancia de plasmón superficial (spr)

Resonancia de plasmón superficial (SPR) es el fenómeno óptico subyacente detrás de etiqueta-libre biosensores para evaluar la afinidad molecular, cinética, especificidad y concentración de biomoléculas. En SPR, las interacciones biomoleculares se producen en un biosensor de una fina capa de metal sobre un prisma. Interacciones en tiempo real de biomoléculas pueden controlarse mediante la medición de los cambios de la luz reflejada de la parte inferior de la metal
Este video describe los conceptos básicos de SPR y cómo se utiliza para analizar y visualizar las interacciones biomoleculares. Esto es seguido por una preparación de muestras y el protocolo experimental para la investigación de tipos de enlace utilizando SPR. En la sección de aplicaciones, imágenes de SPR, SPR localizada y punto cuántico se exploran mejor SPR.
<div class="chapter_text" id="script_0"> superficie resonancia de plasmones o SPR, es el fenómeno subyacente detrás de ciertos biosensores etiqueta-libre para evaluar las interacciones vinculantes y adsorción de las biomoléculas. Ensayos de Unión que requieren etiquetado, como ELISA, pueden ser un proceso desperdiciador de tiempo y pueden alterar la funcionalidad del analito. En SPR, las interacciones biomoleculares ocurren en un sensor especial hecho de una fina capa de metal en una cara de un prisma. Monitoreo de los cambios en la luz reflejada apagado de la parte inferior del metal, instrumentos SPR visualizar estas interacciones en tiempo real sin el uso de etiquetas. Este video presenta los principios de la SPR, un procedimiento general para la proyección de imagen de SPR y algunas aplicaciones de la bioquímica.
</div> <div class="chapter_text" id="script_1"> sensor de un SPR de se hace generalmente de una capa delgada de un metal noble en la cima de la cara de un prisma. Para tomar las lecturas del sensor, la luz se refleja fuera de la interfaz de prisma de metal en un fotodetector. La luz reflejada tendrá una intensidad alta excepto en un determinado ángulo, relacionadas con las propiedades electrónicas de la superficie del metal, conocido como el &#34; ángulo de resonancia de plasmón superficial &#34;.
Como las moléculas se unen a la superficie, cambian las propiedades electrónicas del metal, que a su vez ajusta el ángulo. Como colocar nuevas proteínas, formando complejos, el ángulo cambiará aún más. Al medir los cambios relativos en el ángulo de la SPR, interacciones como estos pueden ser monitoreadas en tiempo real.
Otra técnica llamada localizada, o &#34; L &#34; SPR, utiliza nanopartículas de metal como la superficie del sensor. Las propiedades que afectan el ángulo SPR son muy localizadas a cada nanopartícula, que mejora la resolución de la señal y sensibilidad.
SPR al investigar las interacciones de enlace con el estándar, el sensor se monta generalmente en una plataforma que se convierte en el piso de una celda de flujo en el instrumento. Las biomoléculas de interés llevan a través de la célula de flujo tampón. La superficie del sensor está cubierta a menudo primero con un sustrato que tiene una alta afinidad por el metal. Esto asegura que una cantidad significativa de ligando, que a su vez se une al analito de interés, se inmovilizó sobre el sensor y reduce la probabilidad de que el ligando se disocia durante el procedimiento.
Una vez ligando inmovilizado en el sensor, el analito es fluyó sobre el sensor en buffer. Monitorizando el cambio en el ángulo de la SPR con el tiempo como el analito se une al ligando, se pueden calcular la tasa de enlace y otra información cinética.
Los datos de reflectancia pueden también ser utilizados para imágenes de SPR, o SPRi, por dirigir la luz reflejada a un detector CCD. Esto produce una imagen de alto contraste, alta resolución de la superficie del sensor entero. Con SPR y las técnicas relacionadas, pueden responder a preguntas sobre afinidad molecular, cinética, especificidad y concentración de.
Ahora que usted comprende lo que está siendo medida en un experimento SPR, que &#39; s mira un procedimiento para investigar los tipos de enlace.
</div> <div class="chapter_text" id="script_2"> antes de comenzar los buffers del procedimiento, el funcionamiento y la muestra debe estar preparado. El búfer de ejecución se utiliza para depositar el ligando en el sensor, y el tampón se utiliza para depositar el analito. La viruta del sensor se limpia cuidadosamente y cargada en una vaina. Luego, el dispositivo se coloca en el instrumento, donde se convierte en la parte inferior de la celda de flujo. El software del instrumento está configurado para el experimento y el análisis posterior. Si es necesario, la superficie del sensor está preparada con un sustrato para capturar el ligando. El ligando es fluyó sobre la superficie del sensor en el búfer de ejecución, donde es capturado por el sustrato en la superficie del sensor.
, El analito en el tampón de muestra se ejecuta a través de la célula de flujo, donde se une selectivamente al ligando inmovilizado. El cambio en reflectividad es trazado y con respecto a los controles para determinar constantes de velocidad y otros datos de cinética de reacción para la reacción investigada.
</div> <div class="chapter_text" id="script_3"> ahora que entiendes cómo se realiza un experimento SPR, &#39; s, mira en algunas otras aplicaciones de la SPR en bioquímica.
Aquí, proyección de imagen de SPR se utilizó para evaluar las proteínas con una gran variedad de receptores de la once en un sensor 3D gráficos de reflexión frente al tiempo y concentración del receptor se prepararon de los datos de reflectividad para cada proteína. Estos &#34; perfiles &#34; son característicos para cada proteína y así podría ser utilizado posteriormente para la identificación de proteínas.
En este experimento, las secreciones de la célula fueron estudiadas usando un sensor LSPR por encargo. El sensor también era compatible con SPRi y fluorescencia microscopía. Al depositar la célula en el sensor, se podía medir la interacción de las secreciones de la célula con la matriz de nanopartículas con alta resolución espacial.
Aquí, se investigó el uso de puntos cuánticos, semiconductores a nanoescala, como un agente de mejora de señal SPR mezclado con el analito. Esto realzó &#34; nano-SPRi &#34; método fue comparado con ensayos por SPRi estándar y el método de ELISA. El método de nano-SPRi mejoró significativamente la sensibilidad y límite de detección mientras que todavía siendo menos desperdiciador de tiempo que el método de ELISA.
</div> <div class="chapter_text" id="script_4"> te &#39; ve a Miró JoVE &#39; s video en resonancia de plasmón superficial. Este fenómeno se utiliza para el monitor y la imagen las interacciones biomoleculares sin el uso de etiquetas. Este video introdujo los principios de la SPR, un protocolo típico para llevar a cabo un experimento SPR y unas cuantas aplicaciones de SPR en bioquímica.
Gracias por ver!
</div>

Resonancia de plasmón superficial (SPR)

Surface plasmon resonance (SPR) is the underlying optical phenomenon behind label-free biosensors to evaluate the molecular affinity, kinetics, ...

La resonancia de plasmones de superficie, o SPR, es el fenómeno subyacente detrás de ciertos biosensores sin etiquetas para evaluar las interacciones de unión y adsorción de biomoléculas. Los ensayos de unión que requieren etiquetado, como ELISA, pueden ser un proceso lento y pueden alterar la funcionalidad del analito. En SPR, las interacciones biomoleculares ocurren en un sensor especial hecho de una capa delgada de metal en una cara de un prisma. Al monitorear los cambios en la luz reflejada en la parte inferior del metal, los instrumentos SPR visualizan estas interacciones en tiempo real sin el uso de etiquetas. Este video presentará los principios de SPR, un procedimiento general para la obtención de imágenes de SPR y algunas aplicaciones en bioquímica. Un sensor SPR generalmente está hecho de una capa delgada de un metal noble sobre la cara de un prisma. Para tomar lecturas del sensor, la luz se refleja desde la interfaz prisma-metal hacia un fotodetector. La luz reflejada tendrá una alta intensidad excepto en un cierto ángulo, relacionado con las propiedades electrónicas de la superficie metálica, conocido como "ángulo de resonancia del plasmón de superficie". A medida que las moléculas se unen a la superficie, las propiedades electrónicas del metal cambian, lo que a su vez ajusta el ángulo. A medida que las nuevas proteínas se unen, formando complejos, el ángulo cambiará aún más. Al medir los cambios relativos en el ángulo SPR, las interacciones como estas se pueden monitorear en tiempo real. Otra técnica llamada localizada, o "L"SPR, utiliza nanopartículas metálicas como superficie del sensor. Las propiedades que afectan al ángulo SPR están muy localizadas en cada nanopartícula, lo que mejora la sensibilidad y la resolución de la señal. Cuando se investigan las interacciones de unión con el SPR estándar, el sensor generalmente se monta en una plataforma que se convierte en el piso de una celda de flujo en el instrumento. Las biomoléculas de interés son transportadas a través de la celda de flujo por una solución tampón. La superficie del sensor a menudo se recubre primero con un sustrato que tiene una alta afinidad por el metal. Esto asegura que una cantidad significativa de ligando, que a su vez se une al analito de interés, se inmovilizará en el sensor y reduce la probabilidad de que el ligando se disocie durante el procedimiento. Una vez que el ligando está inmovilizado en el sensor, el analito fluye sobre el sensor en tampón. Al monitorear el cambio en el ángulo SPR a lo largo del tiempo a medida que el analito se une al ligando, se puede calcular la velocidad de unión y otra información cinética. Los datos de reflectancia también se pueden utilizar para la obtención de imágenes SPR, o SPRi, dirigiendo la luz reflejada a un detector CCD. Esto produce una imagen de alto contraste y alta resolución de toda la superficie del sensor. Usando SPR y las técnicas relacionadas, se pueden responder preguntas sobre la afinidad molecular, la cinética, la especificidad y la concentración. Ahora que comprende lo que se mide en un experimento SPR, veamos un procedimiento para investigar las tasas de unión. Antes de comenzar el procedimiento, se deben preparar los búferes en ejecución y de muestra. El tampón de ejecución se utiliza para depositar el ligando en el sensor, y el tampón de muestra se utiliza para depositar el analito. El chip sensor se limpia cuidadosamente y se carga en una funda. Luego, el dispositivo se coloca en el instrumento, donde se convierte en la parte inferior de la celda de flujo. El software del instrumento está configurado para el experimento y el análisis posterior. Si es necesario, la superficie del sensor se imprima con un sustrato para capturar el ligando. El ligando fluye sobre la superficie del sensor en el tampón de ejecución, donde es capturado por el sustrato en la superficie del sensor. A continuación, el analito en el tampón de muestra se pasa a través de la celda de flujo, donde se une selectivamente al ligando inmovilizado. El cambio en la reflectancia se traza y se compara con los controles para determinar las constantes de velocidad y otros datos cinéticos de reacción para la reacción investigada. Ahora que entiendes cómo se realiza un experimento de SPR, veamos algunas otras aplicaciones de SPR en bioquímica. Aquí, las imágenes SPR se utilizaron para evaluar proteínas con una matriz de once receptores en un sensor. Se prepararon gráficos 3D de reflectividad frente al tiempo y concentración de receptores a partir de los datos de reflectividad de cada proteína. Estos "perfiles" son característicos de cada proteína, por lo que podrían utilizarse posteriormente para la identificación de proteínas. En este experimento, se estudiaron las secreciones celulares utilizando un sensor LSPR hecho a medida. El sensor también era compatible con SPRi y microscopía de fluorescencia. Al depositar la célula en el sensor, la interacción de las secreciones celulares con el conjunto de nanopartículas se pudo medir con alta resolución espacial. Aquí, se investigó el uso de puntos cuánticos, semiconductores a nanoescala, como agente de mejora de la señal SPR mezclado con el analito. Este método mejorado de "nano-SPRi" se comparó con los ensayos de SPRi estándar y el método ELISA. El método nano-SPRi mejoró significativamente la sensibilidad y el límite de detección, a la vez que requería menos tiempo que el método ELISA. Acabas de ver el vídeo de JoVE sobre la resonancia del plasmón de superficie. Este fenómeno se utiliza para monitorear e obtener imágenes de las interacciones biomoleculares sin el uso de etiquetas. Este video presentó los principios de SPR, un protocolo típico para realizar un experimento de SPR, y algunas aplicaciones de SPR en bioquímica. ¡Gracias por mirar!

Education

Educación

JoVE Science Education

Chemistry

Química

Biochemistry

Bioquímica

spr biosensors for tracking binding kinetics

Surface plasmon resonance, or SPR, is a way to track biomolecular binding on a label-free biosensor. It is used to measure molecular affinity, kinetics, specificity, and concentration. The method works with a thin metal layer on a prism, where changes in reflected light reveal interactions in real time.

SPR sensors use a thin layer of a noble metal on the face of a prism. Light is reflected from the prism-metal interface into a photodetector. At one specific angle, called the surface plasmon resonance angle, the reflected light drops in intensity. When molecules bind to the metal surface, the electronic properties change and the angle shifts. As more proteins attach and form complexes, the shift becomes larger.

A related method, localized SPR, or LSPR, uses metal nanoparticles as the sensor surface. Because the sensing effect is highly local around each nanoparticle, LSPR can improve sensitivity and signal resolution. SPR data can also be turned into images with SPR imaging, or SPRi, by sending the reflected light to a CCD detector. This creates a high-contrast, high-resolution image of the full sensor surface.

For a standard SPR binding assay, the sensor is mounted in a platform that forms the floor of a flow cell. Biomolecules are carried through the flow cell in buffer solution. The sensor surface is often coated first with a substrate that binds the metal well. This helps immobilize the ligand, which is the molecule that will capture the analyte, and lowers the chance that the ligand will dissociate during the run. After the ligand is attached, the analyte is flowed over the sensor in buffer, and the change in SPR angle is recorded over time to calculate binding rates and other kinetic data.

Before the experiment begins, the running buffer and sample buffer must be prepared. The running buffer is used to deposit the ligand onto the sensor, and the sample buffer is used to deposit the analyte. The sensor chip is cleaned, loaded into a sheath, and placed into the instrument. The software is then set up for data collection and analysis. If needed, the surface is primed with a capture substrate. The ligand is then captured, the analyte is run through the flow cell, and the reflectance change is compared with controls to determine rate constants and other reaction kinetics.

SPR is also useful in several biochemistry applications. In one SPR imaging example, proteins were tested with an array of eleven receptors on a sensor, and 3D graphs of reflectivity versus time and receptor concentration were made for each protein. These reflectivity profiles were characteristic of each protein and could be used for identification. In another study, cell secretions were measured with a custom LSPR sensor that also worked with SPRi and fluorescence microscopy. A further application used quantum dots, which are nanoscale semiconductors, to enhance the SPR signal in a method called nano-SPRi. Compared with standard SPRi and ELISA, nano-SPRi improved sensitivity and the limit of detection while still taking less time than ELISA.

SPR Biosensors for Tracking Binding Kinetics

dialysis: diffusion based separation

Dialysis for Buffer Exchange in Biochemistry

Dialysis is a common biochemistry technique for buffer exchange and desalting. It separates molecules by diffusion through a semipermeable membrane, which lets small molecules pass while holding larger biomolecules inside the sample. The membrane is the key part of the setup. Its pores create a molecular weight cutoff, so a membrane such as a 10 kDa membrane usually keeps molecules larger than 10 kilodaltons inside. This cutoff is not exact, because membranes have a range of pore sizes.

enzyme assays and kinetics

Measuring Enzyme Reaction Rates

Enzyme reaction rates can be measured with assays that track how substrate or product levels change over time. Enzymes are proteins, or sometimes RNAs, that speed up chemical reactions by lowering the activation energy needed to start them. They act on a specific substrate and help form a product that supports life processes. Enzymatic reactions are often described in three steps. First, the substrate binds to the enzyme active site and forms an enzyme-substrate complex. That complex can fall...

maldi-tof mass spectrometry

How MALDI-TOF Reads Biomolecules

MALDI-TOF mass spectrometry reads biomolecules by using a laser, a matrix, and a time-of-flight analyzer. MALDI, or matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization, helps fragile molecules keep their structure while they are moved into the mass analyzer. The analyzer then separates compounds based on size and charge. In MALDI, the sample is mixed into a matrix, usually an organic compound with aromatic and conjugated double bonds. A laser pulse strikes the spot, and the matrix absorbs most of the...

tandem mass spectrometry

Tandem Mass Spectrometry for Biomolecule Analysis

Tandem mass spectrometry is used to isolate a biomolecule and break it into smaller pieces so its makeup can be studied. Because biomolecules often have large, complex structures, it can be hard to identify their molecular composition and sequence from a single measurement. By linking mass spectrometers in series, the technique first selects one ion and then analyzes the fragments it produces. The process starts with an ion source that converts the sample into ions. A mass analyzer then...

protein crystallization

Protein Crystals for Structure Analysis

Protein crystals help scientists study protein structure and function. A crystal is a solid lattice made from purified protein molecules. These crystals are useful in structural biology because they reveal details that methods like mass spectrometry and SDS-PAGE cannot show on their own. Protein crystallization is paired with recombinant protein expression and x-ray diffraction to support this work. The process starts with a large amount of very pure protein. Researchers often make that...

chromatography-based biomolecule purification methods

chromatography-based-biomolecule-purification-methods

Protein Purification with SEC and IMAC

Protein purification with size-exclusion chromatography and affinity chromatography helps isolate biomolecules from complex mixtures. These methods are common in biochemistry because purified samples are needed before a biomolecule’s properties and activity can be studied. The video focuses on the principles behind size-exclusion chromatography, affinity chromatography, and immobilized metal affinity chromatography, or IMAC. Size-exclusion chromatography, or SEC, separates molecules by size. A...

two-dimensional gel electrophoresis

Protein Mapping with 2D Gel Electrophoresis

Protein mapping with 2D gel electrophoresis separates complex protein mixtures across two steps. The method combines isoelectric focusing, or IEF, with sodium dodecyl sulfate polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis, or SDS-PAGE. Together, these methods can resolve thousands of biomolecules from a single sample by their isoelectric point and molecular weight. The first dimension is IEF. Each protein has an isoelectric point, or pI, which is the pH where its net charge is zero. Proteins are loaded...

metabolic labeling

Tracking Cell Chemistry with Metabolic Labels

Metabolic labeling tracks cell chemistry by using chemical analogs that cells take up and build into biomolecules. These labels help scientists follow biochemical changes and modifications inside cells. The labeled products can then be studied with tools such as SDS-PAGE and NMR to learn more about metabolic pathways. Several labeling strategies are shown here. Isotopic labeling uses analogs that match the natural molecule but contain uncommon isotopes, such as carbon-13 and nitrogen-15 in an...

electrophoretic mobility shift assay (emsa)

electrophoretic-mobility-shift-assay-emsa

Detecting Protein-DNA Binding by EMSA

Electrophoretic mobility shift assay, or EMSA, is a biochemical method used to detect binding between proteins and nucleic acids. It is also called a gel shift assay. The test compares how a labeled nucleic acid moves through a gel before and after it binds a protein. EMSA is used to see whether a specific protein binds to a specific nucleic acid. First, the nucleic acid is labeled to make a probe. The transcript describes radioactive phosphorus-32 as a common label. The probe is then mixed...

photometric protein determination

Measuring Protein Concentration with Absorbance

Measuring protein concentration with absorbance is a key step in many biochemical assays. Photometric methods use the fact that samples with more light-absorbing material transmit less light. Because concentration and absorption are directly related, this makes it possible to measure an unknown sample. The core idea comes from the Beer-Lambert Law. This law states that the concentration of a light-absorbing species is proportional to its absorbance. The video also introduces the Bradford assay...

density gradient ultracentrifugation

Sucrose Gradient Separation in an Ultracentrifuge

Sucrose gradient separation in an ultracentrifuge is a lab method for isolating cell parts and biomolecules. It uses differences in density to make particles sink or rise in a liquid. A high-speed ultracentrifuge speeds up this process so components can be separated without destroying them. The basic idea starts with a suspension, which is particles mixed in a liquid solvent. Particles that are denser than the solvent sediment, while less dense particles float. A rotor inside the...

co-immunoprecipitation and pull-down assays

co-immunoprecipitation-and-pull-down-assays

Protein Interaction Capture Methods in Cells

Co-immunoprecipitation and pull-down assays are laboratory methods used to capture stable protein-protein interactions. Protein-protein interactions help control many biological functions, but many of them have not yet been identified. These assays are related to immunoprecipitation, which isolates a target protein from a mixed sample using an antibody. In co-immunoprecipitation, or CoIP, an antibody binds the target protein, and that protein is already attached to another protein that the...

reconstitution of membrane proteins

Membrane Proteins in Liposome Models

Membrane proteins can be moved into liposome models so their function can be studied outside a cell. Reconstitution means restoring an isolated biomolecule to a working form. For membrane proteins, that usually means placing a purified protein into an artificial lipid membrane. Cell membranes are made mainly of phospholipids and membrane proteins. The phospholipids form a bilayer with hydrophilic phosphate heads facing water and hydrophobic fatty acid tails facing inward. Some membrane...

f&#246;rster resonance energy transfer (fret)

FRET as a Molecular Ruler in Cells

Föster resonance energy transfer, or FRET, is a way to study close-range biochemical interactions using light-emitting molecules. A donor fluorophore can pass energy to an acceptor fluorophore when their emission and absorption spectra overlap. This transfer happens only when the pair is very close together, usually within 10 nm. Because FRET depends on distance, it is often called a molecular or spectroscopic ruler. The strength of the signal is measured as FRET efficiency, which describes...

surface plasmon resonance (spr)

Surface plasmon resonance, or SPR, is a way to track biomolecular binding on a label-free biosensor. It is used to measure molecular affinity, kinetics, specificity, and concentration. The method works with a thin metal layer on a prism, where changes in reflected light reveal interactions in real time. SPR sensors use a thin layer of a noble metal on the face of a prism. Light is reflected from the prism-metal interface into a photodetector. At one specific angle, called the surface plasmon...

biochemistry

Esta colección presenta varios métodos de purificación comúnmente usados, como la cromatografía de afinidad y métodos analíticos, como MALDI-TOF. Además, los videos muestran métodos para evaluar la interacción y la función de diversas biomoléculas como en la coprecipitación y el etiquetado metabólico.

Explore how SPR biosensors track biomolecular binding in real time, measure kinetics, and support imaging methods such as SPRi and LSPR.

SPR Biosensors for Tracking Binding Kinetics | JoVE K12

new-york-state-science-learning-standards

New York State Science Learning Standards

HS. Waves and Electromagnetic Radiation

HS-PS4-5.

Life Science

matter-and-energy-in-organisms-and-ecosystems

Matter and Energy in Organisms and Ecosystems

HS-LS1-6.

Overview

Principles of SPR

SPR Sample Preparation and Experimental Protocol

Applications

Summary

Travelling Waves

A wave is a disturbance that propagates from its source, repeating itself periodically, and is typically associated with simple harmonic motion. ...

Wave Parameters

The simplest mechanical waves are associated with simple harmonic motion and repeat themselves for several cycles. These simple harmonic waves can be ...

Equations of Wave Motion

Mathematically, the motion of a wave can be studied using a wavefunction. Consider a string oscillating up and down in simple harmonic motion, having a ...

Graphing the Wave Function

Consider the wave equation for a sinusoidal wave moving in the positive x-direction. The wave equation is a function of both position and time. From the ...

/files/media/science-education/science-education-thumbs/14721.jpg

Velocity and Acceleration of a Wave

A wave propagates through a medium with a constant speed, known as a wave velocity. It is different from the speed of the particles of the medium, which ...

Speed of a Transverse Wave

The speed of a wave depends on the characteristics of the medium. For example, in the case of a guitar, the strings vibrate to produce the sound. The ...

/files/media/science-education/science-education-thumbs/14722.jpg

Kinetic and Potential Energy of a Wave

All forms of waves carry energy; this is directly visualized in nature. For instance, the waves of earthquakes are so intense that they can shake huge ...

Energy and Power of a Wave

The total energy associated with a wavelength is the sum of the potential energy and the kinetic energy. The average rate of energy transfer associated ...

Propagation of Waves

When a wave propagates from one medium to another, part of it may get reflected in the first medium, and part of it may get transmitted to the second ...

Sound Waves

Sound waves can be thought of as fluctuations in the pressure of a medium through which they propagate. Since the pressure also makes the medium&#39;s ...

Sound as Pressure Waves

Sound waves, which are longitudinal waves, can be modeled as the displacement amplitude varying as a function of the spatial and temporal coordinates. As ...

/files/media/science-education/science-education-thumbs/14724.jpg

Speed of Sound in Solids and Liquids

Most solids and liquids are incompressible&#8212;their densities remain constant throughout. In the presence of an external force, the molecules tend to ...

Speed of Sound in Gases

The speed of sound in a gaseous medium depends on various factors. Since gases constitute molecules that are free to move, they are highly compressible. ...

Doppler Effect - I

The Doppler effect and Doppler shift were named after the Austrian physicist and mathematician Christian Johann Doppler in 1842, who conducted experiments ...

Doppler Effect - II

The Doppler effect has several practical, real-world applications. For instance, meteorologists use Doppler radars to interpret weather events based on ...

Shock Waves

While deriving the Doppler formula for the observed frequency of a sound wave, it is assumed that the speed of sound in the medium is greater than the ...

Echo

The human ear cannot distinguish between two sources of sound if they happen to reach within a specific time interval, typically 0.1 seconds apart. More ...

/files/media/science-education/science-education-thumbs/14729.jpg

Electromagnetic Waves

James Clerk Maxwell formulated a single theory combining all the electric and magnetic effects scientists knew during that time, calling the phenomena his ...

Generating Electromagnetic Radiations

The German physicist Heinrich Hertz (1857&#8211;1894) was the first to generate and detect certain types of electromagnetic waves in the laboratory. ...

Electromagnetic Wave Equation

Maxwell&#39;s equations for electromagnetic fields are related to source charges, either static or moving. These fields act on a test charge, whose ...

propagation-speed-of-electromagnetic-waves

Propagation Speed of Electromagnetic Waves

Electromagnetic waves are consistent with Ampere&#39;s law. Assuming there is no conduction current Ampere&#39;s law is given as:


Consider a plane ...

Electromagnetic Waves in Matter

Electromagnetic waves can travel in the vacuum as well as in matter. For example light, which is an electromagnetic wave, can travel through air, water, ...

Energy Carried By Electromagnetic Waves

Anyone who has used a microwave oven knows there is energy in electromagnetic waves. Sometimes, this energy is obvious, such as in the summer sun&#39;s ...

The Wave Nature of Light

The nature of light has been a subject of inquiry since antiquity. In the seventeenth century, Isaac Newton performed experiments with lenses and prisms ...

Use mathematical representations to support a claim regarding relationships among the frequency, wavelength, and speed of waves traveling in various media. [Clarification Statement: Examples of data could include electromagnetic radiation traveling in a vacuum and glass, sound waves traveling through air and water, and seismic waves traveling through the earth.] [Assessment Boundary: Assessment is limited to algebraic relationships and describing those relationships qualitatively.]

HS-PS4-1

The Electromagnetic Spectrum

Electromagnetic waves are categorized according to their wavelengths and frequencies, giving the electromagnetic spectrum. These waves are classified as ...

Classification of Signals

Signals are categorized as Continuous-time or discrete-time, Periodic or aperiodic, Analog or digital, and Causal or noncausal.
A continuous-time signal ...

Discrete Fourier Transform

Consider a vibration sensor that continuously captures data in the form of a continuous time-dependent signal.
However, in reality, the sensor can only ...

Discrete-Time Fourier Series

The Discrete-Time Fourier Series is a counterpart to the Fourier-series expansion of continuous-time periodic signals.
Calculating the expansion ...

Sampling Theorem

Consider the continuous-time signal x(t), and a train of impulses where Ts,&#xA0; is the sampling interval, and fs, is the sampling frequency.
Multiplying ...

Properties of Fourier Transform I

In radio broadcasting, Fourier Transform properties are applied in simultaneous multi-channel transmission, adjusting audio clip speeds, live broadcast ...

Signal and System

Signals are sets of data or information.
One-dimensional signals include single-variable functions, such as the variations in air pressure over time in ...

Methods of Documentation VII: EMR

Electronic Medical Records (EMRs) primarily center around electronically documenting patients&#39; health information within a single healthcare ...

Fast Fourier Transform

The Fast Fourier Transform, FFT, is a computational algorithm for calculating the Discrete Fourier Transform by breaking the calculations into smaller, ...

reconstruction-of-signal-using-interpolation

Reconstruction of Signal using Interpolation

Consider a continuous signal and its sampled counterpart with a sampling period T.
Applying a zero-order hold to the sampled signal results in a piecewise ...

Downsampling

Consider a sampled sequence with zero values between sampling instants. Replace it by taking every N-th value of the sampled sequence.
The original and ...

Design Example

An engineer designs a circuit for a speaker system with a 2 kHz crossover frequency requirement, considering the speaker&#39;s resistance of 8 ohms.
The ...

Upsampling

Consider a decimated signal with a reduced frequency range due to its lower sampling rate.
Insert zeros between each sample to upsample, that introduces ...

Properties of DTFT I

Consider two discrete-time signals, each with their respective Discrete-Time Fourier Transforms DTFTs.
The signals are first multiplied by constants a and ...

Relation of DFT to z-Transform

The Discrete Fourier Transform (DFT) analyzes the frequency content of discrete-time signals.
It maps the N-sampled discrete time-domain sequence to its ...

Feedback control systems

Feedback control systems are categorized as linear or nonlinear, time-varying or time-invariant, and classified by signal types as continuous or ...

Properties of the z-Transform I

Certain properties provide a solid foundation for analyzing discrete-time systems using the Z-transform.
Considering two discrete-time signals, the ...

Magnetic Resonance Imaging

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is a noninvasive medical imaging technique based on a phenomenon of nuclear physics discovered in the 1930s, in which ...

Evaluate questions about the advantages of using digital transmission and storage of information. [Clarification Statement: Examples of advantages could include that digital information is stable because it can be stored reliably in computer memory, transferred easily, and copied and shared rapidly. Disadvantages could include issues of easy deletion, security, and theft.]

HS-PS4-2

Interference and Superposition of Waves

When two waves of the same nature occur in the same region simultaneously, they result in interference. Interference of waves implies that the net effect ...

Sound Waves: Interference

Sound waves can be modeled either as longitudinal waves, wherein the molecules of the medium oscillate around an equilibrium position, or as pressure ...

Interference: Path Lengths

Consider two sources of sound, that may or may not be in phase, emitting waves at a single frequency, and consider the frequencies to be the same.
Two ...

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concept-of-resonance-and-its-characteristics

Concept of Resonance and its Characteristics

If a driven oscillator needs to resonate at a specific frequency, then very light damping is required. An example of light damping includes playing piano ...

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Sound Waves: Resonance

Resonance is produced depending on the boundary conditions imposed on a wave. Resonance can be produced in a string under tension with symmetrical ...

Reflection of Waves

When a wave travels from one medium to another, it gets reflected at the boundary of the second medium. A common example of this is when a person yells at ...

Standing Waves

Sometimes waves do not seem to move; rather, they just vibrate in place. Unmoving waves can be seen on the surface of a glass of milk kept in a ...

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Modes of Standing Waves - I

A close look at earthquakes provides evidence for the conditions appropriate for resonance, standing waves, and constructive and destructive interference. ...

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Evaluate the claims, evidence, and reasoning behind the idea that electromagnetic radiation can be described either by a wave model or a particle model, and that for some situations one model is more useful than the other. [Clarification Statement: Emphasis is on how the experimental evidence supports the claim and how a theory is generally modified in light of new evidence. Examples of a phenomenon could include resonance, interference, diffraction, and photoelectric effect.] [Assessment Boundary: Assessment does not include using quantum theory.]

HS-PS4-3

SPR Biosensors for Tracking Binding Kinetics

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